Emerging Criminological
Theories
“If a little knowledge is
dangerous, where is the man
who has so much as to be out
of danger” – T.H. Huxley
Introduction…
 Collectively the theories covered may
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appear overwhelming and
counterproductive
BUT…
Many interrelated
Share a common goal (crime control)
Interest in (criminal/deviant) human
behaviour
Developmental criminology vs. integrating
criminologies
Evolution of Theories
 Knowledge is NEVER static (relative
& evolutive)
 ! History of juvenile justice
 Theories strive for:
Parsimony
 Logically sound
 Quantitative soundness
 Logical soundness
 ‘popularity’
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Routine Activity Theory (RAT)
 L. Cohen & M. Felson ’79:
 Elements of deterrence, utilitarianism, and
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rational choice
Bridges theory and practice
Gives equal wgt to victim and offender
… variations of rational theories:Table 8-1
Major elements: motivation, suitable
target, and absence of capable guardian
Intuitively strong and amenable to social
action
 CDN study… RAT not account for
peer pressure and cultural norms
 Overemphasis on role of victim
Social Conflict-based Theories
 Long history… ‘heels’ of labelling
theory
 Critical perspective with modern
variations:
 Conflict
 Marxism
 Peacemaking
 feminism
Conflict Theory…
 Inter-group conflict
 Modest support in N.A.
 … influence of Archambault and
Fateaux Reports
 Focus on ID sources of conflict and
social processes leading to
definitions of crime
 Policy… ideas but minimal support
Marxist Theory…
 Conflict rooted in class differences
 Proletariat
vs. bourgeoisie
 Inequality tends to increase crime
 Unclear as to structural causes
 Untestable
 … spawned modifications
Peacemaking Theory…
 H. Pepinsky & R. Quinney
 Humanistic approach
to crime causation
 Can not punish the act,
only the actor
 Promote a non-violent approach
 “indulge in demoncracy’
 Theorists ? But restorative justice!
Feminist perspectives…
 C. Lombroso vs. F. Adler
 Dominance of male based
explanations
 Significant impact on theory and CJ
 Rape
laws
 Redefining gender crimes
 Gender relations to criminology
 Broaden level of awareness…
Variations of Feminist Perspectives
 Liberalism: equality and freedom of
choice
 Socialism: gender oppression and
capitalism
 Radicalism: patriarchy and male
aggression
 Marxist: capitalism the vehicle for
oppression and exploitation
Left-realism
 Shift from ‘blaming’ the ruling class and
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capitalism
J. Young and J. Lea
Heavy reliance on victimization data
SIX BASIC PREMISES
Crime is a problem; reality behind the
appearance; take crime seriously;
circumstances of offender & victim;
policing; conventional and nonconventional crime
 Best strategy for crime control…
 crime prevention
 e.g., community based policing
 victim compensation
 improve socio-economic conditions
 political response or criminological
theory?
 ?able conception of working class
 operational issues
General Theory of Crime
 A ‘displaced’ theory?
 But… multi-factor and integrated
theoretical approach
 ‘Overemphasis’ of self-control
 Roots in control theory
 Premised on notion that we are
rational; that sanctions can deter; that
certainty and severity works (Classical
School)
 M. Gottfredson and T. Hirschi
 … beyond self-control
 integrated
elements of bio-social,
psychological, routine activity, and
rational choice theories
 low self-control
 traits and child-rearing practices
 Box 8.7
 positivistic theory with focus on the
processes of an act
Bio-social Theory
 Tainted by controversy
 ‘True’ interdisciplinary or an “end-to-
end model”
 S. Mednick’s approach:
 the Danish link
 behaviour triggered by ANS but
mitigated by….
 Socialization
processes
 H. Eysenck’s approach:
 personality features inherited
(introversion & extroversion)
 ANS and central nervous system
interact to affect response patterns
 role of conditioning
T. Moffit’s approach:
 Life course theory
 Congenital factors (e.g., heredity,
prenatal complications, etc.)
 Longitudinal data from NZ
 Interaction of biology and social
variables…
 Both
8-2)
risk and protective factors (Figure
 Bio-social and “guarded optimism”
 How resolve conflict between LAW
and SCIENCE?
 Risk/fear proactive legal intervention
 SUMMARY
 Growing number of integrated and
interdisciplinary theories
 Jury still out…
 Current shift towards individualistic
approaches vs. voluntaristic
 “an important scientific innovation
rarely makes its way by gradually
winning over and converting its
opponents…what happens is that its
opponents gradually die out and that
the growing generation is
familiarized with the idea from the
beginning” (Becker & Selden, ’85:330)
Have a good one…