ENGAGEMENT AMONG STUDENTS AND UNKNOWN PERSONS WHILE USING
SOCIAL NETWORKING WEBSITES
A Thesis
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Criminal Justice
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
The requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Criminal Justice
by
Brandon Jess Jaimes
SPRING
2012
ENGAGEMENT AMONG STUDENTS AND UNKNOWN PERSONS WHILE USING
SOCIAL NETWORKING WEBSITES
A Thesis
by
Brandon Jess Jaimes
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Timothy Croisdale, Ph.D.
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dimitri Bogazianos, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Brandon Jess Jaimes
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format
manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for
the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Yvette Farmer, Ph.D.
Division of Criminal Justice
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
ENGAGEMENT AMONG STUDENTS AND UNKNOWN PERSONS WHILE USING
SOCIAL NETWORKING WEBSITES
by
Brandon Jess Jaimes
The advent of technology inherently creates problems as much as it lends
efficiency, and unfortunately, the internet plays a pivotal role in a few of the major
problems it has created. Current research reveals possible connections between social
networking websites and increased likelihood of interpersonal victimization. The
following is an analysis of 288 students who completed a survey measuring their use of
internet communication services and engagement with unknown persons. Analyses
showed that a large portion of students place themselves at high risk for a suitable target
and lack of guardianship. Variations were found measuring the variable for motivated
offender. Few subject responses indicated students engage with unknown persons
whether or not they feel safe, but an overwhelming majority of the students do not feel
safe engaging with strangers.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Timothy Croisdale, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible. I would like to
sincerely thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Tim Croisdale who decided to lend me his hand
when I needed it most. Dr. Croisdale, thank you for making it easier to put the pieces in
place. I am eternally indebted to your acceptance and kindness. I am grateful to have Dr.
Bogazianos assist with this thesis. Dr. B., your persuasive belief in my ability encouraged
me to grow and analyze elaborate theory. I now have the confidence to tackle the utmost
difficult task. I am blessed to have had Dr. Farmer be the graduate coordinator during this
life-changing experience. Dr. Farmer, your devotion, enthusiasm, patience, and
compassion made my journey much easier. I could not have asked for a better mentor. I
would like to thank the people who have taught me persistence: my grandfather, Charlie
Jaimes Sr., your love and support has guided me in the darkest of times, my father,
Charlie Jaimes Jr., thank you for providing the most valuable secret in life, Jaimes power,
and my mother, Beverly Jaimes, for being so loving and proud. I am honored to
acknowledge my extended family and my best friends. Thank you for being there during
the most difficult and happiest moments in my life. Most importantly, I wish to thank my
brothers, Brishen and Bryce Jaimes. Collectively, they have helped me become the
person I am today. Thank you.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ viii
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….. 1
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 3
Need and Purpose of Study .......................................................................................... 5
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................... 6
Theory.. ........................................................................................................................ 8
Methodology .............................................................................................................. 11
Scope and Limitations ............................................................................................... 13
Organization of the Study .......................................................................................... 13
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................... 15
Introduction................................................................................................................ 15
Sexual Harassment ..................................................................................................... 15
Stalking ...................................................................................................................... 24
Sexual Exploitation .................................................................................................... 33
Identity Theft ............................................................................................................. 42
Summary .................................................................................................................... 49
3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 54
Subjects ...................................................................................................................... 54
Instrument .................................................................................................................. 56
Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 57
Testable Hypotheses .................................................................................................. 61
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 61
Limitations of Research Design ................................................................................. 64
4. FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................ 66
Suitable Target ........................................................................................................... 66
vi
Lack of Guardianship................................................................................................. 69
Motivated Offender.................................................................................................... 70
Predictors of Interpersonal Victimization: Combination of Suitable Target,
Motivated Offender, and Lack of Guardianship ........................................................ 82
Subject Response ....................................................................................................... 86
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 88
5.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................. 90
Implications for Future Research ............................................................................... 95
Appendix A. Questionnaire ..................................................................................................... 99
Appendix B. Script Used Prior to Questionnaire Distribution ............................................... 109
Appendix C. Use of E-mail Services over 24-hour Period .................................................... 111
Appendix D. Use of Instant Messenger Services over 24-hour Period.................................. 112
Appendix E. Use of Chat-room Services over 24-hour Period .............................................. 113
Appendix F. Use of Social Networking Website Services over 24-hour Period ................... 114
Appendix G. Privatization of Social Networking Websites and Student’s
Perception of Safety .................................................................................................. 115
Appendix H. Collapsed Data for Subjects Contacted by Unknown Persons
and Their Perception of Safety ................................................................................ 116
Appendix I. Collapsed Data for Subjects who were Requested Permission to
View Their Social Networking Website ................................................................... 117
Appendix J. Subjects who were Asked Permission by Unknown Persons to View
Their Private Social Networking Website and Their Perception of Safety ............. 118
Appendix K. Subjects who Conversed with Unknown Persons and Their
Perception of Safety .................................................................................................. 119
References ............................................................................................................................. 120
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
1.
Page
Table 3.1: CSUS Criminal Justice Undergraduate Courses
Selected………………………………… ....... .……………………………….58
2.
Table 3.2: Demographics………………………… .. …………………………60
3.
Table 3.3: Ages 15-25 by Age………………………………………………...60
4.
Table 4.1: Use of Internet……………………………….…………………….67
5.
Table 4.2: Social Networking Website Use…………………………………...68
6.
Table 4.3: Frequency of Mobile Device Use………………………………….69
7.
Table 4.4: Guardianship of Computer Use……………………………………70
8.
Table 4.5: Amount of Students Reporting Online Behaviors by
Suitable Target, Motivated Offender, Lack of Guardianship,
and by Demographics………………………………………………………....85
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
1.
Page
Type of Personal Information Posted on Social Networking
Website………………………………… ....... .……………………………….71
2.
Access of Personal Information Provided to an Unknown Person on Social
Networking Websites……………………………………………………...…..72
3.
Indication of Suitable Target: Social Networking Website and Internet
Use…………………………………………….………………………………82
4.
Contribution of Personal Information and Experiences with Unknown
Persons on Social Networking Websites………………………………………83
5.
Location of Computer Use and Guardianship………………………..………..84
ix
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
The continual technological advancement that allows for efficient communication
methods through e-mail, instant messengers, chat-rooms, and websites are just a few
ways that the internet can be used to facilitate communication (D'Ovidio, Mitman, ElBurki, & Shumar, 2009). For example, the benefit of e-mail allows users an alternative
way to sending postal mail in an electronic form in just a matter of seconds and instant
messenger programs allow for real-time text communication, which provides an
alternative to other out-dated forms of communication (D'Ovidio et al., 2009). Lastly,
social networking websites allow users to interact with each other through several means
of electronic picture sharing, instant messaging, e-mailing, or providing links to other
websites. However, in addition to the multiple benefits provided by these advancements
in technology, they have also provided predators with alternative and anonymous
methods for victimizing individuals (Marcum, 2008).
Victimization, or more specifically, interpersonal victimization, has become a
major concern throughout society today. According to Davis, Lurigio, & Herman (2007),
interpersonal victimization can be defined as "harms that occur to individuals because of
other human actors behaving in ways that violate social norms" (p.10). We often refer to
multiple forms of victimization that do not adequately represent interpersonal
victimization (Davis et al., 2007). For example, motor vehicle accident victims or victims
of natural disasters are not categorized as interpersonal victims (Davis et al., 2007). The
more general referent for the term victimization is interpersonal victimization. With this
2
in mind, Davis et al. address interpersonal victimization and the issues of malice,
deception, injustice, and morality compared to impersonal forms of accidents or disasters
that occur during general forms of victimization. There are many contributing factors to
interpersonal victimization; however, the most common method of interpersonal
victimization occurs through face-to-face encounters (Combs-Lane& Smith, 2002).
Prior to the advent of the internet, interpersonal victimization occurred among
acquaintances, friends, family members, and complete strangers without the assistance of
computers (Cassell & Cramer, 2007). However, with the belief that there was a rise in
sexual victimization, eventually a form of "moral panic" was prescribed by the media and
researchers began to produce studies in an effort to identify victimization risk
characteristics (Ben-Yehuda & Goode, 1994). For example, according to Parks and
Miller (1997), "interpersonal victimization risks may be greater in certain social settings,
such as bars, where alcohol is consumed and aggression is more likely" (p.513). Also,
personal and property crime victimization studies suggest that participating in leisure
activities away from home and other lifestyle choices were likely to increase
victimization risk factors (Arnold, Keane, & Baron, 2005). In another study, research has
shown that a combination of behavioral factors (alcohol use) and leisure activities (going
to the mall or eating out) are associated with increased risk of criminal victimization
among college women (Mustaine & Tewksbury, 1999). Another study found that the
exposure to potential predators serves as a risk factor for future sexual victimization,
particularly in interpersonal situations where the individual is perceived as a vulnerable
target (Parks & Miller, 1997). Lastly, a study determined that women in college have an
3
increased risk of sexual victimization because they tend to provide opportunities in time
and space with potential offenders while having little to no guardianship (Fisher, Cullen,
& Turner, 2002). Therefore, several studies revealed that with an increase in social
activities among face-to-face encounters there was a proportional increase in
victimization risk factors (Ben-Yehuda & Goode, 1994; Parks & Miller, 1997; Arnold,
Keane, & Baron, 2005; Mustaine & Tewksbury, 1999; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2002).
Statement of the Problem
The emerging innovations of the internet have created a more efficient and clever
avenue of interpersonal victimization for predators, and unfortunately, research on
internet use has demonstrated that internet use has significantly increased in the past 10
years (Addison, 2001). Furthermore, the advent of the internet has created an
environment of sexual exploitation in the forms of chat-rooms, blogs, instant messengers,
webcam chats, picture exchanges, and most importantly for this study, social networking
websites. As new developments of technology emerge, society and its activity patterns
are constantly transforming (Madriz, 1996). A recent report discovered that 87 percent of
youth are using the internet and that percentage of youth is projected to grow (Rainie,
2006). With this in mind, as innovative technologies emerge, the creation of different
methodological victimization tactics also emerge (Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2006).
For example, according to several studies on internet use by youth, it has been found that
increasing numbers of users are experiencing unwanted exposure to sexual material,
sexual solicitation, and unwanted non-sexual harassment (Marcum, 2008). Moreover, not
only are there a greater number of users accessing the internet to socialize, these
4
individuals are also spending more time on the internet. Unfortunately, it is evident that
while the use of social networking websites can produce positive interaction and develop
enjoyable relationships for its users, these individuals are spending extensive amounts of
time online and are also placing themselves at an elevated level of interpersonal
victimization risk (Izenberg & Lierbman, 1998).
The recent popularity of social networking websites has created fear among law
enforcement agencies, users, and guardians (Marcum, 2008). The issue with the frequent
use of social networking websites is the increased risk for interpersonal victimization
(Marcum, 2008). It has been shown that the deceptive capability of the internet has
created a sense of fear among users (Choo, 2008). In fact, according to Johnson (2006),
"many sexual predators use fake identities complete with false pictures and information
to mask their true identities in order to seem more enticing to those with whom they wish
to interact" (p.4). Unfortunately, these predators, or "cybercriminals" can hide their
history of communication, digital pictures, and video files by using password
authentication, encryption and stenographic techniques (Choo, 2008). These efforts often
hinder law enforcement and investigators in their attempts to decrease online
victimization of users and other acts of sexual exploitation (Choo, 2008). Furthermore,
anonymity of communication can be provided through the use of the Onion Router, an
"anonymising protocol" that allows data to be routed through numerous servers.
According to Marks (2007), "the device uses cryptography to obscure the data path and
hence make it untraceable for law enforcement” (p. 25). With these methods of masking
identity in mind, the fear among the use of social networks has produced multiple beliefs
5
that social networking websites are the new street corner of our society, and that they are
a predator's dream come true (Apuzzo, 2006). Collectively, the underlying issue is that
even though identities are masked, the users then begin to believe that through constant
contact or social interaction through the internet that the stranger may actually be
completely honest or sincere. However, multiple studies show that this is not true. This
study examines why social networking website users may want to interact with strangers
and why they may feel comfortable doing so.
Need and Purpose of Study
The current study focuses upon social networking websites in order to examine
why users may want to interact with strangers that they encounter while using such sites.
A questionnaire will be administered to survey the use of a computer and the internet by
undergraduate students majoring in criminal justice at California State University,
Sacramento. This study will investigate the purpose and intention of the user(s) social
networking profile before collecting data on how often these individuals are e-mailed,
instant messaged, or asked to be common "friends" on the site by complete strangers. In
addition, it is pertinent in this study to understand whether or not these users have
privatized their user profiles, for it may be hypothesized that those with privatized user
profiles may have a lower rate of victimization risk. Following, it must be noted whether
or not users interacted with strangers while using social networking websites. If the users
have interacted with strangers among the websites, it is important to determine if the
users are aware of interpersonal victimization risk factors described previously.
6
Currently there is a perception that there are numerous dangers associated with
the use of social networking websites creating a "moral panic" (Perkel, 2008). However,
even though there is a copious amount of literature supporting the correlation with
increased use of social networking websites there is an increased risk for potential
victimization, few studies have analyzed the rates of interpersonal victimization while
using such websites. More importantly, few emerging studies have hypothesized that
social networking websites are being used for individuals to explore their identity and
sexuality; however, there are no studies that have analyzed why individuals interact with
strangers among these sites.
This may provide additional understanding of prevention, awareness, and theory
involving the interaction of strangers and users of social networking websites. First, this
study may create or provide more effective preventative strategies for users when
encountering strangers while using social networking websites. Also, this study may
create awareness among guardians who monitor individuals while accessing such
websites. Finally, this will apply Cohen and Felson's 1979 Routine Activities Theory to
progressing technologies and alternate forms of solicitation between strangers and social
networking website users.
Hypotheses
It is suggested that with the advent of the internet, interpersonal victimization may
have increased due to the use of social networking websites (D'Ovidio et al., 2009). Most
notably, previous research has suggested that increasing numbers of users are
experiencing unwanted exposure to sexual material, sexual solicitation, and unwanted
7
non-sexual harassment (Marcum, 2008). It is also unfortunate that the internet provides
the ability for predators to mask their true identity or block law enforcement’s capability
of tracking their data path and server route (Ogilvie, 2001). In addition, sufficient
amounts of research support the notion that with increased use of social networking sites
there is increased risk for potential victimization, but this research will focus on a
different aspect of interpersonal victimization. This current research will determine if
users of social networking websites have ever been contacted by an unknown person, and
more specifically, why these users may want to interact with these strangers that they
encounter while using such sites.
The research will focus on three independent variables as three dimensions of
interpersonal victimization: motivated offenders, suitable targets of criminal
victimization, and capable guardians of persons or property. The three dimensions are
concerned with the rates of interpersonal victimization as they relate to the motivated
offenders that are involved, how the subjects are targeted for suitable victimization, and if
there is a lack of guardianship over desired persons or things.
The researcher has developed three hypotheses for the current study:
Motivated Offenders
H1A: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is an increase in the
number of motivated offenders encountered.
H0A: Interpersonal victimization rates will not differ depending on the increase of
motivated offenders encountered.
8
H1B: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is an increase in the
number of suitable targets (subjects who provide personal information) that are easy to
access by an offender.
H0B: Interpersonal victimization rates will not differ depending on the increase of suitable
targets that are easy to access by an offender.
H1C: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is a lack of capable
guardianship of persons or security measures present.
H0C: Interpersonal victimization rates will not differ depending on the lack of capable
guardianship of persons or security measures present.
Theory
The hypotheses enable the researcher to: first, determine if there are specific
predictors that may increase one’s likelihood to engage with strangers among social
networking websites. For it is believed that when the variables are combined, they
produce a heightened effect on the level of interpersonal victimization rates (Cohen &
Felson, 1979); Second, to provide more awareness strategies for users when encountering
strangers while using social networking websites. Additionally, this may create
awareness among guardians who monitor individuals while accessing such websites.
Routine activities theory, developed by Cohen and Felson (1979), may help
explain why variability may be present in victimization. This theory states that changes in
crime are due to the opportunities of offenders (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Furthermore,
these changes may be a result of a convergence in time and space of motivated offenders,
targets that are viewed as being suitable by the offender, and a lack of guardianship over
9
the desired persons or things (Cohen & Felson, 1979). According to Cohen and Felson
(1979), many theories only take into consideration specific time periods and groups,
whereas routine activities theory attempts to explain all fluctuations in crime.
Routine activities theory is based on the presumption that individuals performing
daily routines may encounter an incident of victimization (Cohen & Felson, 1979). The
incident may only occur if the convergence of those with criminal motivations or
intentions are present (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Daily routines are acts that are considered
to be essential to someone’s life, such as going to the gym, accessing his or her e-mail
account, or working. Many criminologists suggest that a person’s lifestyle increases their
risk of being exposed to criminals and criminal activities (Parks & Miller, 1997).
Therefore, those seen as being the easiest targets due to their lifestyle choices will face
higher crime rates compared to those who place themselves at unequivocal risk (Arnold,
Keane, & Baron, 2005). Collectively, the opportunities presented to violators to perform
criminal acts must be removed in order to eliminate victimization. Cohen and Felson
(1979) suggest that increased guardianship will eliminate the opportunity for criminal
acts.
Before the introduction of the internet, interpersonal victimization occurred
among acquaintances, friends, family members, and complete strangers in a traditional
face-to-face manner (Cassell & Cramer, 2007). Over time, reports of sexual victimization
were on the rise, and researchers began to produce studies in hope to identify
victimization risk factors (Ben-Yehuda & Goode, 1994). For example, Parks and Miller
(1997) reported that risks are greater in specific social settings, such as bars. It was found
10
that participating in leisure activities away from home and other lifestyle choices were
likely to increase victimization risk factors (Arnold, Keane, & Baron, 2005). Mustaine
and Tewksbury (1999) suggested a combination of behavioral factors (i.e. alcohol use)
and leisure activities (i.e. going to the mall or eating out) are associated with increased
risk of criminal victimization among college women. The exposure to potential predators
serves as a risk factor for future sexual victimization, particularly in interpersonal
measures where the individual is perceived as a vulnerable target (Parks & Miller, 1997).
Moreover, increased victimization occurs because opportunities in time and space with
potential offenders converge while having little to no supervision (Fisher, Cullen, &
Turner, 2002).
While referring to the variables comprised of Cohen and Felson’s (1979) routine
activities theory, interpersonal victimization is possible to occur while using social
networking websites. However, due to the assembly of the internet, the risk of
victimization while using social networking websites may be presented differently. In this
thesis, the researcher focuses on the concept of motivated offenders to a broader degree.
For those accessing social networking websites, it will be useful to divulge victimization
rates for online crimes of harassment, stalking, sexual exploitation, and identity theft.
As stated above, the three variables in discussion are the presence of motivated
offenders, the appearance of a suitable target, and the lack of guardianship over
something or someone that may be desired by an offender. Furthermore, in this thesis a
suitable target will be defined by crimes committed against those while accessing the
internet, or more specifically, those using social networking websites. In this study, the
11
internet is viewed as a suitable target for offenders because there is an ease of access to
individuals. A motivated offender has the advantage of grooming numerous individuals at
one time and may remain anonymous if desired. In addition to anonymity, a motivated
offender has the ability to appear as any person that they desire. For example, the internet
may allow an adult to portray him or herself as being much younger than they are in
reality. Lastly, the lack of guardianship occurs when individuals do not use social
networking websites with caution due to the belief that conversing with someone over the
internet is not a potential threat, and recent studies by Pierce (2006) suggest that there is a
correlation between trusting strangers online and giving out personal information.
Therefore, those who access the internet and social networking websites at a higher rate
are at a higher risk of interpersonal victimization.
Methodology
A sample of California State University, Sacramento undergraduate students
enrolled in criminal justice courses completed an anonymous questionnaire about their
use of social networking websites and engagement with unknown persons. Current
research reveals possible connections between social networking websites and increased
likelihood of victimization. Therefore, the questionnaire was designed to collect
information on why some individuals may feel comfortable engaging with unknown
persons through social networking websites.
This study utilized a random cluster sampling technique selecting California State
University, Sacramento students enrolled in criminal justice undergraduate courses.
Undergraduate criminal justice courses were selected as individual clusters, simple
12
random sampling was applied to each course offered, and then the fifty clusters were
randomly selected with the use of a random sampling generator.
Data were collected from students enrolled in the randomly selected courses
through a voluntary questionnaire. The questionnaire (see Appendix A) consisted of 20
close-ended questions and one open-ended question requesting subjects to indicate the
types of activities performed on the internet, the location of their computer use, how often
the internet is used, whether or not there is presence of another person while using the
computer, whether or not they are registered to social networking websites, information
they may have posted on their personal social networking website, whether or not their
personal social networking website is privatized, how often they have been requested or
have “friended” an unknown person, whether or not they have conversed with the
unknown person they have “friended,” whether or not they have given personal
information beyond what is accessible on their personal social networking website,
whether or not they do any of the aforementioned activities with the use of a mobile
device, whether or not they feel safe engaging with unknown persons among social
networking websites, their gender, their age, and their marital status.
SPSS will produce figures suggesting whether specific predictors may increase
one’s likelihood to engage with strangers among social networking websites. The
variables will be measured through a survey polling personal use of a computer and
behaviors while using social networking websites, privatization of social networking
websites, and types of interpersonal victimization that may occur because of social
networking website use.
13
Scope and Limitations
The study attempts to analyze engagement with unknown persons with the
ambition of unveiling occurrences of interpersonal victimization due to the use of social
networking websites. There are several limitations to this study. The primary limitation is
that those surveyed were students from criminal justice courses offered through
California State University, Sacramento. The survey was not offered to the general
public. This limits the ability to generalize all academic majors, as well as other college
campuses and college-aged youth in general. Further research examining interpersonal
victimization on social networking websites throughout the nation would be interesting.
Another limitation to this study is the omission or integrity of data from each
reporting subject. With an interviewer not being present it is problematic because it will
be difficult to clarify incomplete answers, control the quality of answers provided, or
further explain the survey if questions of clarification are asked by individual subjects.
Organization of the Study
The remainder of this study will examine the presence of predictors that may
increase one’s likelihood to engage with strangers among social networking websites.
The subsequent chapters will proceed as follows. Chapter two reviews current research
illustrating interpersonal victimization through traditional offline environments, as well
as, contemporary online environments. Described in chapter three are the methods used
to create a data collection instrument, the action of surveying subjects, and the analysis of
the data obtained. Chapter four presents the findings of the research. Lastly, chapter five
14
will conclude presenting a summary of the research, discuss the results, and provide
further implications of the research.
15
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Introduction
The advent of technology inherently creates problems as much as it lends
efficiency, and unfortunately, the internet plays a pivotal role in a few of the major
problems it has created (D'Ovidio, Mitman, El-Burke, & Shumar, 2009). Since Licklider
created and implemented the electronic global communication system known as the
internet, there has been a consistent exponential growth of users (Licklider & Clark,
1962). Recently this growth has raised concerns among researchers focusing on
developing social problems and the use of the internet (Mitchell, Becker-Blease, &
Finkelhor, 2005). There are a considerable amount of problems concerning the internet
that have not yet been discussed because they continue to develop along with technology
(Mitchell et al., 2005). Therefore, to demonstrate the need for a review of emerging
internet victimization, this study examines the issues within offline and online avenues
among the following areas of harassment, stalking, sexual exploitation, and identity theft.
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment is a form of interpersonal victimization that is historically
associated with environments such as the workplace and educational systems (LaRocca
& Kromrey, 1999; Rubin, 1995). The topic of sexual harassment and its definition has
been under continual modification and will continue to change as new forms of
harassment emerge (Bradenburg, 1997; Dansky & Kilpatrick, 1997; Dziech, 2003;
Dziech & Hawkins, 1998; Hall, Graham, & Hoover, 2004; Paludi, 1997; Williams, Lam,
16
& Shively, 1992). The issue of harassment comes in many forms of behaviors and
actions.
A social psychological framework for sexual harassment was researched by
Pryor, LaVite, & Stoller (1993) describing that both situational factors and factors of an
individual person contribute to sexual harassment. In this study, Pryor et al. (1993) used
two large scale surveys, one from the U.S. Department of Defense and the other from an
organizational assessment. Ultimately, this study focused on the incidence of sexual
harassment and hoped to answer a series of questions indicating the frequency that
subjects experienced 10 different types of “uninvited, unwanted sexual attention over the
last 12 months” (Pryor et al., 1993, p.70). This framework is a fundamental connection
towards understanding the variables linked to sexual harassment. This framework
illustrates sexual harassment as an interpersonal behavior containing both social and
personal elements. In addition, sexual harassment is a behavior that is not always
displayed by all individuals. With this in mind, only some individuals may be
predisposed to behave in a sexually harassing manner. Plus, only particular situations (not
all) may trigger the sexually harassing behavior. However, when the facilitating person
and situation factors are present together, this creates a possible opportunity for sexual
harassment. Therefore, those who are more likely to sexually harass a victim are only
likely to do so if the situational factors are present (Pryor et al., 1993).
A historical piece by Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski (1987) within sexual
harassment literature was one of the first to discuss the nature of sexual victimization
among female college students linking person and situational factors together. Koss and
17
colleagues (1987) found that female college students were being sexually harassed within
a higher educational environment. Also, Gutek (1981) was one of the first researchers to
demonstrate that the majority of sexual harassment offenders were men while majority of
the victims were women. Collectively, numerous studies have confirmed that sexual
harassment is typically pursued by males against females and that females are most often
victims of sexual harassment (Cortina, Swan, Fitzgerald, & Waldo, 1998; Dziech, 2003;
Gutek, 1981; Kalof, Eby, Matheson, & Kroska, 2001; Paludi, 1997; Russell & Oswald,
2001). Furthermore, research implies that sexual harassment is most likely to occur
among “females, graduate students, women in nontraditional fields, minority females,
disabled persons, divorced women, young and naïve females, persons who were sexually
abused, and homosexuals” (Clodfelter, Turner, Hartman, & Kuhns, 2010, p.457). In order
to further confirm findings from sexual harassment research, Clodfelter et al. (2010)
studied a random sample of 750 college students from a southeastern university. E-mails
were initially sent to the subjects, and then another e-mail was sent giving a link to a
website that would host a survey (Clodfelter et al., 2010). The study sample consisted of
65 percent females and 35 percent males and the majority were White (Clodfelter et al.,
2010). The research revealed that 22.7 percent of the subjects reported experiencing a
form of sexual harassment (Clodfelter et al., 2010). Among those subjects that were
sexually harassed, 92.9 percent were by other students and 50.0 percent were by strangers
(Clodfelter et al., 2010). More specifically, most of the offenders were males, most often
the offenders were White, most of the victims were victimized while alone, and almost all
of the victims did not consume alcohol prior to their incident (Clodfelter et al., 2010).
18
The finding that almost all of the victims did not consume alcohol prior to their
harassment is significant because it contradicts most literature documenting the
prevalence of alcohol during more serious types of victimization (Fisher, Cullen, &
Turner, 2000; Testa & Parks, 1996). Lastly, proximity and guardianship were two areas
that were also related to experiencing sexual harassment (Clodfelter et al., 2010).
A routine activities theory explanation of sexual harassment was produced by
DeCoster, Estes, and Mueller (1999) which focused on the areas of proximity,
guardianship, and target attractiveness. The research tested hypotheses using data from a
national company in the industry of telecommunications (DeCoster et al., 1999). As
previously noted by Pryor et al. (1993), the opportunity for sexual harassment is greatest
when a person or group of people have routines or daily activities that bring them and
their property in contact with motivated offenders. Similarly, Cohen and Felson (1979)
speculated that with the absence of guardians, victimization is elevated during routine
and daily activities while in the presence of motivated offenders. Therefore, DeCoster et
al. (1999) aimed to apply Cohen and Felson’s routine activities theory to sexual
harassment in an effort to explain victimization.
Within DeCoster et al.’s study (1999), a total of 6,485 employees (3,316 males
and 3,169 females) completed a questionnaire which was designed to measure sexual
harassment among the workplace. It was discovered that the presence of guardianship
plays a critical role in sexual harassment victimization (DeCoster et al., 1999).
Specifically in this study, both supervisors and coworkers were supportive in protecting
women from sexual harassment (DeCoster et al., 1999). It was also found that proximity
19
to motivated offenders increased the possibility for sexual harassment (DeCoster et al.,
1999). For example, women who are among male-dominated jobs are more likely to
experience sexual harassment than those in female-dominated settings (DeCoster et al.,
1999). With this in mind, it can also be noted that smaller work environments and a high
volume of employees also increases their likelihood of sexual harassment due to
increased probable exposure (DeCoster et al., 1999). Lastly, individual characteristics
“indicative of target attractiveness” were deemed critical for understanding sexual
harassment (DeCoster et al., 1999, p.42). Although the findings were not concrete in this
study, it was suggested that the most attractive subjects are considered more powerful
than their counterparts (DeCoster et al., 1999). Therefore, the preliminary evidence
suggests that power-threat issues may be important in understanding the behavior behind
possible motivated offenders (DeCoster et al., 1999). In contrast, DeCoster and his
colleagues (1999) also suggested that this phenomenon of target attractiveness may also
apply to vulnerable-victims perspective in that “the finding that single women are at
increased risk of harassment may indicate that these women are viewed as threatening to
traditional female roles (power threat) or that these women are less protected than their
married counterparts (vulnerable victim)” (DeCoster et al., 1999, p.42). Unfortunately,
the research was unable to clarify either of these two findings; however, it is conclusive
that proximity, guardianship, and target attractiveness serve as critical roles in creating
sexual harassment opportunities (DeCoster et al., 1999).
In addition to the previous examples of face-to-face sexual harassment, with the
advent of technology, online forms of sexual harassment are now taking place
20
(Anonymous, 2009). Mitchell et al. (2005) found that individuals reported being
victimized while using online sites in sexual and nonsexual forms. One type of
harassment includes posting defamatory or embarrassing personal information about
others (Mitchell et al., 2005). Also, it appears that online harassment is rarely reported to
law enforcement because most individuals perceive that the victimization is not that
serious (Finn, 2004). Furthermore a study conducted by the Internet Safety Task Force,
led by Berckman Center for Internet Society at Harvard University aimed to determine
which of today's technologies could best address online safety risks (Anonymous, 2009).
Before the task force began its work on technology, it studied research to determine the
actual threats youths face (Anonymous, 2009). According to the final report requested by
50 state Attorney Generals, online harassment and cyber-bullying appear to be the most
common risks youths face online rather than online solicitation (Anonymous, 2009).
In another study, nonrandom samples of 354 criminal justice students from the
University of Nevada, Las Vegas were surveyed on victimization while using social
networking websites (Taylor, 2008). The sample contained 60.5 percent females and 39.3
percent males, and the majority of the subjects were less than 21 years of age (Taylor,
2008). Also, the subjects were predominantly White (Taylor, 2008). According to Taylor
(2008), there were more non-threatening sexual harassment behaviors occurring outside
of the internet. However, when comparing verbal sexual harassment while on and offline,
the rates were about equal (Taylor, 2008). In addition, sexual harassment behaviors that
were considered “fear-inducing” or “threatening” had higher rates offline than online
(Taylor, 2008). However, most importantly, according to Taylor (2008), a majority of the
21
subjects stated that they have experienced an overwhelming amount of sexual harassment
online rather than offline.
In a 1999 Youth Internet Safety Survey, the prevalence of teenage victimization
on social networking websites was examined (Mitchell, Finkelhor, & Wolak, 2001). The
study surveyed 1,501 youths between the ages of 10 and 17 who were considered
frequent internet users visiting chat-rooms and talking to strangers online (Mitchell et al.,
2001). It was found that 56 percent frequently visited chat-rooms, 56 percent talked to
strangers while online and nearly 20 percent of the youths were sexually solicited while
online (Mitchell et al., 2001). Those who were between the ages of 14 and 17 were
solicited more often than those 10 to 13, however, a follow-up Youth Internet Safety
Survey conducted in 2005 found that the frequency in the number of sexual solicitations
had decreased (Mitchell et al., 2001). Furthermore, in the 2005 survey, 82 percent of
those non-aggressively sexually solicited were between the ages of 14 and 17 (Mitchell et
al., 2001). Almost 75 percent had posted personal information online, and nearly 50
percent used the internet solely for chat-room use (Mitchell et al., 2001). In contrast, the
small percentage of those who were aggressively solicited online, 81 percent posted
personal information and almost 70 percent used the internet solely for chat-rooms
(Mitchell et al., 2001). The survey concluded that risk factors for online solicitations
included being female, using chat-rooms, engaging in conversation about sex, and
revealing personal information (Mitchell et al., 2001).
Another study employed a sample of 1,501 youths between the ages of 10 and 17
who had used the internet at least once a month for the previous 6 months were
22
interviewed about their experiences while using the internet (Mitchell, Ybarra, &
Finkelhor, 2007). In this study, the subjects were 53 percent boys and 47 percent girls,
most were non-Hispanic/White (73 percent), and 63 percent of the youth lived with both
of their parents at the time of the interview (Mitchell et al., 2007). Also, more than three
fourths of the parents reported at least some college education and half of those surveyed
had an annual income of $50,000 or higher (Mitchell et al., 2007). The authors suggested
it was important to recognize that online sexual harassment may be an extension of
existing experiences prior to the advent of the internet (Mitchell et al., 2007). For
example, research suggests that for some youth, there may be no real distinction between
online and offline sexual harassment (Mitchell et al., 2007). Moreover, others feel that
the internet may have introduced a new form of a problem that requires new responses or
interventions (Mitchell et al., 2007). Conclusively, the authors of this interpersonal
victimization study found that 64 percent of the youths experienced at least one online or
offline victimization in the past year (Mitchell et al., 2007). More specifically, 23 percent
of the youth reported at least one of the two forms of online victimization (Mitchell et al.,
2007). They also found that 6 percent reported online harassment, and that 19 percent had
experienced online sexual solicitation (Mitchell et al., 2007). This finding is significant
because it contradicts the Internet Safety Task Force's finding that online harassment is
more common than online solicitation.
Finn (2004) examined online harassment at the University of New Hampshire
through a survey of undergraduate students. Finn developed a survey that focused on the
types of online harassment that occurred through the use of e-mail and instant messengers
23
to insult, harass, threaten, or send pornography (Finn, 2004). Students were asked
whether or not they reported online harassment, their frequency of computer use, and
demographic questions (Finn, 2004). A majority of the students received pornography at
58.7 percent (Finn, 2004). Further results indicated that approximately 10 percent to 15
percent of students had experienced online harassment from strangers, an acquaintance,
or a significant other (Finn, 2004). More specifically, the most frequent portion of
harassment reported by the students was from strangers at 16.2 percent through e-mail
and 19.3 percent through an instant messenger (Finn, 2004). Also, over 14 percent
reported that they received harassing e-mails even after they requested the action to stop,
whereas over 13 percent received similar instant messages after they requested the action
to stop (Finn, 2004). Finally, over 81 percent reported using instant messengers once or
more a week, over 88 percent reported never using a chat-room, no demographic
differences were found in relation to the use of e-mail, instant messengers, or chartrooms,
and no differences in online harassment were associated with the frequency of internet
use (Finn, 2004).
According to Kennedy and Taylor (2010), a 77-question self report survey study
was conducted at a Southwest university. The study focused on personal use of social
networking websites, personal activities conducted while online, and the types of
victimizations that may have been experienced due to the use of social networking
websites (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). The subjects were 354 undergraduate criminal
justice students (60 percent male and 40 percent female) who received course credit for
their participation; however, participation was voluntary and the students could choose
24
not to complete a portion of the survey and still receive full credit (Kennedy & Taylor,
2010). Respondents were debriefed after completing the survey if they felt they had
found the survey to be discomforting (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). The participant's
average age was 22 while 25 percent of the sample was 18 and the remaining majority
being under 21 (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). Most of the students were Caucasian (60
percent), 13 percent Hispanic, 10.5 percent African-American, 8.8 percent Asian, and 7.7
percent being of other (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). The study concluded that sexual
harassment and a pestering form of harassment occurred most frequently online
(Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). Verbal harassment appeared to occur equally online and
offline (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). Fearful threats also occurred more frequently online
rather than offline (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). It was found that those with private
profiles received far less harassment than those with semi-private or non-private profiles
(Kennedy & Taylor, 2010). Furthermore, over 31 percent of the students had an online
relationship that later lead to a face-to-face meeting and an offline relationship (Kennedy
& Taylor, 2010). In contrast, 29 percent of the students had blocked a contact online to
prevent future contact (Kennedy & Taylor, 2010).
Stalking
Stalking is a form of interpersonal victimization that can be defined as the same
person repeatedly exhibiting pursuit behaviors that appear obsessive and therefore makes
a respondent afraid or concerned for his or her safety (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2002).
Recently, in the past two decades, stalking has emerged as a major concern nationwide,
and has most notably become a concern after actress Rebecca Shaeffer was shot to death
25
in 1989 by an obsessed fan (McAnaney, Curliss, & Abeyta-Price, 1993). The emergence
of this social problem has created policy intervention and lead to the implementation of
several educational organizations, victim service organizations, and state and federal laws
(Fisher et al., 2002). In short, the issue of stalking is documented to precede other forms
of violence and will be greatly discussed (Dietz et al., 1991).
In 1989 an obsessed fan had stalked actress Rebecca Shaeffer for two years before
murdering her. That same year, five other women were murdered within Orange County
after being stalked by former boyfriends or spouses (McAnaney et al., 1993). The
following year the first anti-stalking law was passed in California (Fisher et al., 2002).
Currently all 50 states and the District of Columbia have enforced anti-stalking laws
(Fisher et al., 2002). In addition to states implementing anti-stalking laws, the federal
system has incorporated anti-stalking laws that do the following: enforce anti-stalking
laws to serve as a model for the states, requires the Attorney General to compile an
annual report that will be submitted to Congress containing all of the incidents and
information of stalking and how effective anti-stalking legislation has been compared to
previous stalking statistics, and prohibit stalking between numerous states and stalking on
federal property or jurisdictions (Fisher et al., 2002, p.258).
According to an early study regarding stalking by Holmes (1993), it was
determined that stalking is a social condition that is attracting attention within areas of the
criminal justice system, social sciences, and behavioral sciences. Holmes (1993)
concluded that "As criminal justice practitioners, we are concerned with the early
identification of those who stalk their victims" (p.326). This is most notable because it
26
has been determined that stalking is presumed to precede other forms of violence (Dietz
et al., 1991).Therefore, stalking may lead to more and possibly many other forms of
violence such as sexual harassment, sexual assault, domestic violence, and homicide
(Fisher et al., 2002).
A collection of stalking behaviors, stalking characteristics, and stalking victims
have been linked throughout several studies. In general, stalking is mostly directed
towards women, the vast majority of offenders are male, most stalkers are young (20 to
34 years of age), stalkers vary in their socioeconomic background, offenders have an
above- average intelligence level, and stalking may lead to other forms of violence
(Mustaine & Tewksbury, 1999). According to Norris (1988) stalking may lead to sexual
assault, according to Keeney and Heide (1994), stalking may lead to homicide, according
to Coleman (1997), stalking may lead to domestic violence (Coleman, 1997; Harrell,
Smith, & Cook, 1985). Also, it has been shown that on some occasions the offender is a
well-known acquaintance of the victim (Coleman, 1997; Harrell et al. 1985).
Several studies throughout the years have attempted to estimate the numbers of
stalkers within the United States. For example, the National Institute of Justice (1996)
and National Victim Center (1997) estimated that there were somewhere between 20,000
and 200,000 offenders. In 1997 the Stalking Victim's Sanctuary estimated that there were
more than 500,000 offenders. In contrast, studies also attempt to estimate the numbers of
victims. According to the National Victim Center in 1997, it was projected that one in
twenty women would be a victim during her lifetime, and in 2000 the National Violence
Against Women Survey (NVAW) estimated that more than one million women and
27
almost 200,000 men were stalked that year (Jasinski & Mustaine, 2001). According to
Fremouw, Westrup, & Pennypacker (1996), 30.7 percent of their subjects were victims to
stalking behaviors, Mustaine and Tewksbury (1999) reported that 10.5 percent of their
female subjects had been a victim of stalking, Bjerregaard (2000) found that 24.7 percent
of the female respondents were victims of stalking, Tjaden and Thoennes's (1998) study
discovered that 8 percent of their female subjects had been stalked at least once in their
lives, and Fisher and her colleagues determined that 13.1 percent of their female students
were victims of stalking.
A study of undergraduate women enrolled at the West Virginia University was
conducted to determine the acquaintance and prevention of stalkers that they had
encountered (Fremouw, Westrup, & Pennypacker, 1996). Fremouw et al. (1996)
surveyed two sets of subjects first acknowledging if they had ever been stalked and then
if they had known their offenders. The combination of the subjects revealed that 30.7
percent of them had been stalked and over 40 percent of the subjects were acquainted
with the offenders (Fremouw et al., 1996). In addition, according to Fremouw et al.
(1996), the subjects primarily chose to simply ignore those who were stalking them or
would hang up during their telephone calls. Some subjects confronted the stalker or
changed their schedule to avoid the stalker as other means of coping with their obsession
(Fremouw et al., 1996). Shockingly, seeking the police or courts for help were often
methods of last resort (Fremouw et al., 1996).
Another study, led by Coleman (1997) designed a survey which was modeled
after Florida's anti-stalking statutes. This small sample study attempted to determine how
28
often women were stalked after ending a relationship (Coleman, 1997). Out of the 141
female undergraduate students that were surveyed from psychology classes, 29.1 percent
revealed that they had received repeated and unwanted attention from their former partner
after ending the relationship (Coleman, 1997).
In addition to the previous examples of offline stalking, with the advent of
technology, online forms of stalking are now taking place (D’Ovidio et al., 2009). The
same features of the internet that allow people to access new opportunities for education,
shopping, entertainment, and love provide new opportunities for crime or influence one
to commit crime. For example, Maine's Computer Crimes Task Force reported a rise in
reports of online stalking of children. Task Force cases of internet crimes against children
soared 237 percent in 2010 (Anonymous, 2004). Overall, the unit's caseload doubled to
1,216 (Anonymous, 2004). The internet and its community provide an avenue for
victimization for those who might otherwise not be viable targets for crime if they were
not present online (D’Ovidio et al., 2009).
The first online stalking law went into effect in 1999 in California, and the current
US Federal Anti-Cyber-Stalking law is found at forty seven United States Code section
two hundred and twenty three (Hancock, 2000). Cyber-stalking is defined as repeated
threats or harassing behavior over e-mail, the internet, or other electronic
communications (Hancock, 2000). Moreover, internet stalking can be carried out in the
same room as the victim, or as far away as another state or country (Hancock, 2000).
Technology allows for stalkers to harass their victims in a manner that allows no need to
physically confront them (Hancock, 2000). Unfortunately, there are no clear statistics on
29
the number of internet stalking victims, but an August 1999 report from the Department
of Justice estimates that there could be hundreds of thousands affected, and the numbers
continue to grow (Hancock, 2000).
Since the internet is such a new innovation, there is minimal legislation governing
the internet or subsequent research available (Goodwin, 2003). Initiatives to deal with
individuals who use the internet for criminal behavior are sparse (Goodwin, 2003). Also,
legal institutions are trying to combat the ability for internet crime to cross state and
international borders (Goodwin, 2003). However, such operations are difficult (Goodwin,
2003). In addition, the place where the most cyber-stalking information is available is on
the internet itself (Goodwin, 2003). Unfortunately, there are few studies surrounding
cyber-stalking, but it appears that men are the predominant perpetrators in this form of
behavior (Goodwin, 2003). This difference is attributed to the higher number of men
“trolling” on the internet (Goodwin, 2003).
A nonprofit organization, Working to Halt Online Abuse (WHOA), reports that it
receives about 100 requests a week seeking information on how to stop internet stalking
from occurring (Finn, 2004). As more people use the internet, the amount of cyberstalking is likely to increase (Finn, 2004). In fact, the construction of the internet may
promote cyber-stalking (Finn, 2004). Online environments can lend to a false sense of
intimacy or intentions and may potentially promote more cyber-stalking behaviors (Finn,
2004). Also, the sense of anonymity and the lack of social status cues may lead to greater
risk-taking behaviors (Finn, 2004).
30
Cyber-stalking is similar to traditional forms of stalking in that it incorporates
persistent behaviors that instill fear (Ogilvie, 2001). For example, a woman in
Queensland, Australia received multiple e-mails that became more and more threatening
after she asked for the e-mails to stop (Ogilvie, 2001). Ultimately, she received death
threats from the perpetrator claiming that he was going to video-tape raping her and then
upload the video onto the internet (Ogilvie, 2001). In the U.S., a college student harassed
five other female students after purchasing information about each of the girls over the
internet (Ogilvie, 2001). This stalker sent over 100 messages including death threats and
was able to describe their daily activities (Ogilvie, 2001). Each of these offenders' e-mail
accounts could be traced and their identities could be established in the same way a letter
could be traced through the postal system (Ogilvie, 2001). A majority of these cases did
not involve complex forms of stalking, and e-mail was simply being used as an
alternative form of communication (Ogilvie, 2001). Unfortunately there are now
anonymous remailers that can halt this traceability (Ogilvie, 2001). Anonymous remailers
allow the sender's identity to be masked and allow the e-mail content to be concealed
(Ogilvie, 2001). As with offline stalking, few examples of stalking are confined to one
form (Ogilvie, 2001). While e-mail stalking may be similar to traditional stalking in some
instances, it is not restricted to this format (Ogilvie, 2001).
Many would assume that personal use of the internet would be needed in order to
be victimized by a cyber-stalker; however, the following incident proves otherwise
(Goodwin, 2003). A woman met a 51 year old male through church (Goodwin, 2003).
Eventually the man decided to ask the woman out on continuous dates but the woman
31
always refused (Goodwin, 2003). Soon after, the man retaliated by posting the woman's
personal details on the internet, including her physical description, address, telephone
number, and details of how to bypass her home security system (Goodwin, 2003). In
addition, he posted false rape and sexual fantasies to forums online (Goodwin, 2003).
Multiple men soon arrived at her home to take advantage of these alleged fantasies, as
well as leaving sexual phone messages on her machine (Goodwin, 2003). The woman
then posted messages to her door stating these requests were false, and the perpetrator
followed by posting messages online that these were simply tests to determine who was
in fact worthy of her fantasies (Goodwin, 2003). The victim was eventually forced from
her home, suffered from weight loss, lost her job, and developed a fear of going outside
(Goodwin, 2003). Another example of online stalking includes a female school teacher
who decided to meet a man (Andrew) from the internet offline that she originally met
while online (Goodwin, 2003). After she met Andrew, she began to get nervous when he
wanted to get married right away (Goodwin, 2003). Therefore, she immediately made it
clear that she had no romantic interest (Goodwin, 2003). However, he persisted with
email messages, letters, packages, and telephone messages (Goodwin, 2003). He began to
watch her through the windows of her work and began to develop friendships with other
people in her life (Goodwin, 2003). He called her mother, neighbor, and friends, and only
stopped after she contacted the police and he was later prosecuted for harassment
(Goodwin, 2003).
Youths are especially involved in online socialization with various methods of
internet communication, such as e-mail, chat-rooms, instant messaging, and social
32
networking websites (Marcum, 2008). Moreover, not only are there more teens using the
internet to socialize, they are also spending more time online (Marcum, 2008).
Unfortunately, while the use of the internet can produce positive interaction and
relationships for its users, these youths that are spending extensive amounts of time
online are also placing themselves at risk for victimization (Marcum, 2008). The study by
Marcum indicated that communicating with people online and providing personal
information to online contacts increased the likelihood of victimization in the form of
stalking (Marcum, 2008).
Students attending colleges are increasingly dealing with cases of cyber-stalking
(Finn, 2004). It is believed that students are especially vulnerable to stalking and/or
cyber-stalking because they interact within a small community where class schedules,
phones, and e-mails are easily accessed (Finn, 2004). Most college students are in the age
range of 18 to 29 which coincides with stalking profiles (Finn, 2004). It is also argued
that stalking may become a problem on college campuses because most college students
are at the age where they are seeking a sexual relationship (Finn, 2004).
A study conducted by Rosen examined 1,257 users of the social networking
website, MySpace (Rosen, 2006). It was found that only 1.5 percent of the sample
reported being stalked and only 4.6 percent of that sample reported being solicited for sex
(Rosen, 2006). It was also found that women were more likely to have been solicited for
sex while online (Rosen, 2006). Consequently, those who had been actively using the
website for an extended period of time increased their likelihood of victimization (Rosen,
2006).
33
Finally, nonrandom samples of 354 criminal justice students from the University
of Nevada, Las Vegas were surveyed on victimization while using social networking
websites (Taylor, 2008). This study concluded that more subjects had been victimized
offline than online (Taylor, 2008). Similar to Kennedy and Taylor's 2010 study, no
students claimed they had changed their daily activities due to a stalking incident offline;
however, several students changed some of their personal information, including phone
numbers, address, or e-mail address due to online stalking (Taylor, 2008).
Sexual Exploitation
Sexual exploitation is a form of interpersonal victimization that can be defined as
the use of another person in non-consensual and/or consensual sex for profit (Mitchell,
Jones, Finkelhor, & Wolak, 2011). Unfortunately, there are an abundance of forms of
sexual exploitation, and together, they vary considerably in terms of frequency, severity,
implication, prevention, and intervention (Mitchell et al., 2011). Some examples of
sexual exploitation include the production and sale of pornography, prostitution,
trafficking of individuals for sex, the mail order bride trade, forced marriages, and forced
performances in strip clubs (Mitchell et al., 2011). Sexual exploitation is a form of
interpersonal victimization driven by exploiters (Fontana-Rosa, 2001). An exploiter is a
person who is exclusively interested in a monetary profit (Fontana-Rosa, 2001). Even
though the exploiter may not be a pedophile, he can be considered a sex offender in that
he specifically exploits others for a profit (Fontana-Rosa, 2001). Most literature
describes sexual exploitation as being driven by financial or economic benefit for another
person, and financial benefits may include monetary and nonmonetary profits (Mitchell et
34
al., 2011). Nonmonetary items include food, shelter, drugs, and other forms of
commodities for trade (Mitchell et al., 2011). It should also be noted that this form of
victimization is becoming increasingly popular among children, and most importantly for
this study, on the internet (Mitchell et al., 2011).
Sexual exploitation is one of the biggest and fastest growing businesses of
organized crime in the world (Walker-Rodriguez& Hill, 2011). It is estimated that nearly
293,000 American youths are at risk of falling victims to sexual exploitation each year
(Walker-Rodriguez& Hill, 2011). The majority of these youths are those who have
runaway and have succumbed to the life of prostitution through mechanisms of sexual
exploitation, and research concludes that these children generally come from abusive
homes (Walker-Rodriguez& Hill, 2011). Additionally, other victims of sexual
exploitation are forced into the prostitution lifestyle through abduction (WalkerRodriguez& Hill, 2011).
Sexual exploitation is a notoriously vague topic for researchers within the United
States, the inherently concealed operation of this victimization makes it difficult for
researchers to obtain data on the number of individuals affected by these crimes. With
this in mind, the lack of literature on sexual exploitation reflects that challenge. However,
there is some research that has revealed the characteristics of sexually exploitive
predators and the demographics of the victims at hand (Walker-Rodriguez & Hill, 2011).
The media often has highlighted extreme forms of sexual exploitation, reporting stories
of how victims who have trusted strangers have been raped and murdered, and the offline
35
exploitation methods of predators hanging out by schools and parks, looking for specific
victims to prey upon (Walker-Rodriguez & Hill, 2011).
Over the past couple of decades, research shows a convergence of similar
characteristics among those victimized by sexual exploitation (Kramer & Berg, 2003).
They include those who are most likely to share similar characteristics of being from
single-parent households, being isolated, having family problems, having low selfesteem, poor social skills, and are introverted (Kramer & Berg, 2003). One of the most
common forms of entrance into sexual exploitation is prostitution. According to Kramer
and Berg (2003), common risk factors associated with entry into prostitution includes
childhood abuse, behaviors reflecting running away from home, homelessness, and drug
addiction. Furthermore, entry into prostitution can occur first and increase the likelihood
of experiencing other forms of sexual violence (Kramer & Berg, 2003). It has been well
documented that those involved in prostitution have high rates of sexual abuse, and in
turn, victims of sexual abuse have been shown to be particularly vulnerable to becoming
involved in abusive and sexually exploitive relationships as adults (Kramer & Berg,
2003).
According to Simons and Whitbeck (1991), an analysis of 40 adolescent
runaways and 95 homeless women revealed that sexual abuse has a significant impact on
the probability of entry into prostitution. In 2000, Tyler, Hoyt, and Whitbeck reaffirmed
these previous findings when concluding that sexual abuse in the home has a direct
positive effect on sexual victimization of adolescents on the streets. It is a trend that
women in prostitution often report a history of childhood physical abuse as well as sexual
36
abuse (Kramer & Berg, 2003). In recent studies, 60-70 percent of prostitutes report being
abused as children (Kramer & Berg, 2003). For example, through the use of event-history
analysis, it is possible to assess the impact of childhood risks and the likelihood of entry
into prostitution (Kramer & Berg, 2003).
According to Kramer and Berg (2003), educational level, homelessness, poverty,
and many other lower social class characteristics also have a significant effect on the
entry into prostitution (Kramer & Berg, 2003). It is well documented that those who were
victims to sexual and physical abuse often portray fear, anxiety, depression, selfdestructive behavior, anger, aggression, guilt and shame, an impaired ability to trust, an
increased likelihood of re-victimization in adulthood, sexually inappropriate behavior,
educational problems, and running away (Kramer & Berg, 2003). Ultimately, the
negative and influential events that have occurred in these victim’s lives help understand
how sexually exploitive predators operate. It is suggested that sexually exploitive
predators prey upon the outcomes of abuse in an individual’s past and coerce individuals
into prostitution (Kramer & Berg, 2003). It has become evident that the majority of
exploited victims are lured into prostitution as a result of deception, and coercion on
behalf of the predators (Blackburn, Taylor, & Davis, 2010). It is also understood that
these predators may approach a victim under the pretense of providing a legitimate job,
but when the job does not materialize, it becomes obvious that the exploited individual is
expected to perform acts of prostitution in order to repay exploiters for food and shelter
that they have been providing (Blackburn et al., 2010). Collectively, repayment, rape,
37
physical violence, and other means of control are powerful methods to keep the victim in
a lifestyle of prostitution (Blackburn et al., 2010).
Another common form of sexual exploitation is sexual trafficking. Recently there
have been reports on the news of individuals from all over the world traveling to foreign
countries to partake in illegal sexual acts. For example, in March of 2009, three men from
Australia were arrested for child sex tourism and possession of child pornography
(Blackburn et al., 2010). Also, in July of 2009, a Canadian male was arrested for child
sex tourism and the production and distribution of child pornography (Blackburn et al.,
2010). Lastly, late in 2009, three American men were expelled from Cambodia for
pursuing sexual acts with a ten year old girl and two young boys. The review of these
news reports illustrates the problem of child sexual exploitation.
Trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation is a social problem that has
grown exponentially around the world (Blackburn et al., 2010). Unfortunately, data
regarding trafficking and sexual exploitation remains sparse, but it is understood that
thousands of women and children are being sexually trafficked (Blackburn et al., 2010).
It was found that one third of those sexually exploited are younger than the age of 18, and
it was also discovered that girls as young as 5 years old are in the sex trade business
(Blackburn et al., 2010). It is estimated that profits from child sexual exploitation are
roughly a billion dollars a year. Unfortunately, there are no known specific estimates to
the extent of the trafficking problem worldwide, and the industry continues to be elusive.
Although, it is estimated that 40,000 to 500,000 prostitutes are currently working in areas
such as Cambodia (Blackburn et al., 2010). Even though there are no hard statistics
38
representing the true amount of women and children in the sex trade, the estimates at
hand clearly illustrate the magnitude of the sexual exploitation problem.
A research team facilitated by Blackburn et al. (2010) used interviews and
observations in Cambodia and Thailand from June of 2004 throughout 2006 to reveal the
complexity and inner workings of sexual exploitation. Over 100 interviews with
government officials and another 80 interviews with adult prostitutes and victims of
sexual trafficking of children were conducted (Blackburn et al., 2010). The victims that
were interviewed were those who were rescued from the sex trade within Cambodia and
Thailand (Blackburn et al., 2010). Also, trips to massage parlors, strip clubs, and brothels
were conducted to observe real scenarios and settings of the sex trade (Blackburn et al.,
2010). In the study it was found that sexual services were commonly coming from
females ranging from 7 to 16 years of age (Blackburn et al., 2010). Also, prices ranged
from $2 for oral sex up to $35 for vaginal intercourse (Blackburn et al., 2010). In contrast
to other research studies, most of the individuals in this sexual market were found not to
be forced or kidnapped and then sold into the market (Blackburn et al., 2010). According
to the majority of the individuals interviewed, sexual exploitation does occur, but it is not
as common as those entering into the trade by themselves (Blackburn et al., 2010). This is
believed to be due to the extreme poverty found in Southeast Asia and may not be
applicable to the rest of the world (Blackburn et al., 2010). Notably, it was found that 2
girls out of the 80 interviewed had been bought and sold into the trade (Blackburn et al.,
2010).
39
Ultimately, sexual exploitation is driven by money (Blackburn et al., 2010).
According to the study by Blackburn et al. (2010), extreme poverty and the desire to
make money is one of the driving factors behind entering the sex trade. However, not all
those entering the sex trade enter as a personal choice (Blackburn et al., 2010).
Unfortunately, for those who enter willingly or unwillingly, exploiters often promise
legitimate work but then fail to provide (Blackburn et al., 2010). Moreover, victims are
afraid to come forward because they may not understand the criminal justice system,
speak the language of origin, may be embarrassed, may be afraid of their exploiters,
and/or may be without money or passports (Bernat & Zhilina, 2010). Fundamentally,
profit is the motivating factor for those who sexually exploit others, and disturbingly,
those who are seeking sexual pleasure are often financially supporting sexual exploitation
(Blackburn et al., 2010). It is found that places like Cambodia and Thailand in particular
are overwhelmed with sexual exploitation due to inexpensive rates, and these rates can
often be found on the internet (Blackburn et al., 2010).
In addition to offline sexual exploitation, the advance of computer technology has
fostered an extreme growth of sexual exploitation among the internet (D’Ovidio et al.,
2009). In fact, the internet is currently the primary facilitator of sexual exploitation
(Blackburn et al., 2010). The internet allows individuals to discover multiple destinations
quickly and easily in search of sex tourism (Blackburn et al., 2010). Also, it has been
found that through websites and chat-rooms over the internet, sex tourists share details
about the best countries to visit for prostitution (Blackburn et al., 2010). These details go
as far as revealing how well the prostitutes performed, the costs for the services, and the
40
individual’s physical characteristics (Blackburn et al., 2010). Interviews provided in the
Blackburn et al. (2010) study revealed that men found out about specific areas in
Cambodia and Thailand on the internet. The study also found that it was easy to find sex
tourism in Cambodia and Thailand on the internet through a general search engine web
search (Blackburn et al., 2010). Likewise, it was found that host websites catering to
child sex advocates, such as North American Man/Boy Love Association, promote
package tours to select countries (Blackburn et al., 2010). As these are only a few
examples proliferated by the use of the internet, it is important to review why the internet
has flourished as a sexual exploitation medium.
The internet has allowed access to information quickly, efficiently, and
anonymously for business and communication; however, is has also created a means of
seduction for individuals, and lures individuals into potential danger while accessing
“friendly” environments, such as chat-rooms and social networking websites allowing for
the sexual exploitation of individuals (Marks, 2007). It should be noted that a horrifying
feature of sexual exploitation is that the internet provides an additional mechanism of
interpersonal victimization (Mitchell et al., 2011). Traditional forms of offline sexual
exploitation still occur, but now with the advent of the internet, there are additional forms
of seduction and forms of solicitation for individuals to utilize (Mitchell et al., 2011).
A rampant form of sexual exploitation that is being dispersed by the internet is
child pornography (Lanning, 1984). Child pornography has become one of the most
prevalent forms of sexual exploitation since the introduction of the internet (Lanning,
1984). In addition, child pornography is directly linked to the sexual abuse of children
41
(Lanning, 1984). However, the sexual abuse of children during pornographic production
is only part of the exploitation (Lanning, 1984). One aspect of child pornography is its
intention to lower the inhibitions of children and encourage children to engage in similar
activities (Lanning, 1984). According to Lanning (1984), pornography helps to groom
children and persuade them that they would enjoy certain sexual acts. Furthermore, such
sexual images help exploiters rationalize their requests and help neutralize the abuse
(Lanning, 1984). However, all of these uses by exploiters help trap children in abusive
situations (Lanning, 1984). Also, sexual exploiters may blackmail individuals by
threatening disclosure of photographs they may have shared with them (Lanning, 1984).
Exploiters use the internet to make contacts with other exploiters to trade and
share homemade or commercial illegal pornography around the world (Blackburn et al.,
2010). An exploiter may now disperse pornography from one end of the world to the
other with little risk involved with the assistance of the internet (Marks, 2007). Currently
hundreds of thousands of sites capitalize from the dispersion of exploitive material, and
many pornographers have developed websites, databases, forums, and chat-rooms
dedicated to illegal child pornography and pedophilia (Blackburn et al., 2010).
Furthermore, criminologists believe that child pornography is the predecessor to further
sexual exploitation (Kramer & Berg, 2003).
To illustrate the severity of sexual exploitation, Quayle and Taylor (2001)
conducted a case study showing how offenders move through a range of offending
behaviors. In addition, the researchers discussed how the internet is significant in
supporting sexual exploitation by potentially victimizing children through the trading of
42
child pornography and child seduction (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). In the study, the internet
was the primary means of communication with others and that communication mostly
took place through chat-rooms (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). It is important to note that a
participant in the study was able to maintain anonymity and portray himself through
deceptive personas (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). For example, he would display himself
either as a boy or an adult (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). Furthermore, it was found that the
participant initially engaged in conversations and met individuals through chat-rooms
(Quayle & Taylor, 2001). After establishing a relationship, he would then attempt to
engage in cyber-sex to fulfill his sexual fantasies (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). Interestingly,
the participant would use gestures that appeared to be genuine but these efforts were
often deceptive in that they were only used to victimize the individual (Quayle & Taylor,
2001). For example, in order to meet victims offline he would present them with gifts in
hope to gain further (sexual) contact (Quayle & Taylor, 2001). Conclusively, many
researchers believe that the online community supports most sexual deviance (Kramer &
Berg, 2003). Moreover, it is suggested that the internet facilitates the sexual exploitation
of individuals by providing a new, effective, convenient, and more anonymous
environment for predators to access and groom victims, produce and distribute illegal
pornography, contact and stalk individuals to engage in sexual acts, and sexual tourism
for personal and commercial purposes (Marks, 2007).
Identity Theft
According to Reisig, Pratt, & Holtfreter (2009), in 2008 there was an estimated
221.3 million people in the United States accessing the internet. Also, in 2007, the
43
internet generated over $136 billion in sales, an increase of 19 percent from the previous
year, and annual surveys reveal an overwhelming increase in internet use and online sales
(Reisig et al., 2009). On the other hand, the use of the internet can also expose innocent
victims to those who access the internet in search of criminal opportunities (D’Ovidio et
al., 2009). As previously mentioned, the internet allows for the efficiency of managing emails, obtaining news quickly, or managing finances; however, in spite of the benefits
studies show that a majority of internet users and consumers believe the risks associated
with internet use are extremely dangerous (Reisig et al., 2009). In fact, reports suggest
that nearly 70 percent of internet users believe they are more likely to become a victim of
an internet related crime rather than a physical crime (Reisig et al., 2009).
Identity theft is a form of interpersonal victimization that can be defined as the
unlawful use of another’s personal identifying information, such as their Social Security
Number (SSN), date of birth, or mother’s maiden name (Allison, Schuck, & Lersch,
2005). Most literature describes identity theft as being driven by financial gain by
fraudulently establishing credit, running up debt, or taking over someone else’s existing
financial accounts (Allison et al., 2005). Unfortunately, there is an abundance of forms of
identity theft, and they vary in frequency, severity, implication, and prevention. For
decades, identity thieves have been obtaining personal information in numerous ways
(Allison et al., 2005). For example, traditional offline methods may include stealing a
wallet or purse, or digging through someone else’s trash (Allison et al., 2005). In fact,
thieves can obtain extremely sensitive information by digging through another person’s
garbage (Allison et al., 2005). Additionally, this form of victimization is becoming
44
increasingly popular due to the introduction of the internet and the severity of identity
theft has become worse.
Identity theft has become a serious problem because it can take a long period of
time before a victim is aware that a crime has taken place against them (Allison et al.,
2005). Often time, substantial harm has been done to a victim’s credit rating well before
they are aware of it (Allison et al., 2005). In some instances, identity theft victims are
able to resolve their victimization quickly; however, others face detrimental effects to
their financial records (Allison et al., 2005). For example, individuals have been refused
loans, have lost job opportunities, or have been arrested for crimes they did not commit
(U.S. General Accounting Office, 2009). Many theorists suggest that identity theft is one
of the greatest threats to the U.S. economy (Allison et al., 2005). According to the U.S.
General Accounting Office (USGAO) (2002) in 1995, identity theft accounted for over
$442 million dollars. In 1997, identity theft accounted for over $745 million dollars (U.S.
General Accounting Office, 2002). In addition, the Federal Trade Commission estimates
that 10 million people or 4.6 percent of the U.S. adult population will become victimized
through identity theft within the year (Federal Trade Commission, 2000). This estimate
projects possible losses exceeding $50 billion dollars (Federal Trade Commission, 2000).
Recently several agencies have introduced bills to prevent identity theft and
enforce laws prohibiting such crimes. The Federal Trade Commission is one of the main
agencies that collect information regarding identity theft. In 1998, the Identity Theft and
Assumption Deterrence Act passed forcing the Federal Trade Commission to keep a log
of all complaints made by individuals regarding identity theft (Federal Trade
45
Commission, 2000). According to the Federal Trade Commission (2003), there were
31,117 cases of reported identity theft in 2001, 86,198 in 2002, and 161,819 in 2003.
This is a reported increase of 277 percent and 187 percent respectively. In addition, the
Federal Trade Commission also compiled victim and offender demographics concerning
identity theft (Federal Trade Commission, 2003). Data indicated that the mean age for a
victim was 41 years old, the majority of the victims did not know their offender, and it
took 12 to 14 months before the victim realized that a crime had been committed against
them (Federal Trade Commission, 2003).
Despite efforts to prevent identity theft, vulnerabilities remain due to security
weaknesses in information systems, and most importantly for this study, through the
availability and display of personal information on the internet (Allison et al., 2005).
Since the introduction of the internet, individuals have posted personal information for
others to view through social networking websites, chat-rooms, instant messengers, and
dating service websites (Allison et al., 2005).
The development of the internet has created alternate venues for romantic
encounters, and internet daters enjoy the interaction through these new technological
environments (Rege, 2009). Some of the factors that make online dating attractive are
that individuals do not have to leave their home and may access the dating site at any
time, they can access the site privately and remain anonymous, they can interact using
new forms of interaction, such as, live chats, instant messaging, and they can potentially
find their “perfect match” quickly (Rege, 2009). In fact, internet dating has become so
popular due to these features that there are now over 1,400 dating sites in North America
46
today (Rege, 2009). Also, it was estimated that individuals spent over $245 million
dollars on dating services in 2005, and in 2008, the online dating industry grossed over
$957 million dollars making it the fourth highest grossing internet industry (Rege, 2009).
However, this industry of successful love match making is also an environment filled
with scammers and identity thieves (Rege, 2009). For example, according to the National
Consumers League (2008), on average, a victim being scammed lost more than $3,000
dollars in 2007.
The digital environment for internet daters allows users to remain anonymous, be
instantaneous, alterable, and open to interpretation, making online dating attractive and
stimulating (Rege, 2009). However, one of the most recent forms of fraud taking place on
the internet is romance scams through dating service websites (Rege, 2009). Romance
fraud on the internet is a scam where victims believe that scammers have strong
emotional feelings for them, and the romance component of the scam act, acts as bait to
lure the victim. Once the scammer has lured the victim, the scammer then persists with
identity theft or financial fraud. Researchers have discovered that the process all begins
with the creation of a fake profile by the scammer. First, the scammer creates a profile
page containing a list of hobbies, a well-articulated biography, and includes a picture.
Then the scammer skims the dating website to initiate conversation with a potential
victim. This is in an effort to establish a strong bond with the victim to generate trust,
confidence, and romance. Over time, the scammer will then request money from the
victim through alleged stories of tragic events. These may include recent theft,
unexpected hospital expenses from an illness, or to secure funds to meet the victim. The
47
scammer always claims that they need more assistance as the alleged circumstances
intensify. The more successful the scammer is in convincing victims of these stories, the
more the victim is lured into the scam. Therefore, the scam continues until the victim
loses patience or eventually realizes that they are being taken advantage of. Additionally,
if victims do not comply with the scammer’s requests the use of emotional blackmail and
extortion are used. For instance, if victims are unwilling to send money, then scammers
argue that the victim does not have any feelings for them or claim that they were wrong
to believe that they were establishing a meaningful relationship. This is only a trick to
lure the victim back into the scam. Also, in cases where webcams are used, the scammers
record the webcam video and later use these to extort money to prevent broadcast of the
films and pictures on the internet. Researchers believe that due to the amount of time
taken to establish the relationship with the victim, many victims do not believe they are
being scammed making it extremely profitable for the scammer (Rege, 2009).
According to Rege (2009), scammers exhibit certain traits in order to take
advantage of their victims. For example, they use extreme patience in grooming their
victims and establishing trust, they possess basic computer skills and an internet
connection, they follow their routines thoroughly, they belong to networks to take
advantage of specific resources, and they use neutralization techniques to rationalize their
activities (Rege, 2009). All of these traits are important to successfully scam their
victims.
Consider the fraudulent cases involving Patrick Giblin (Rege, 2009). Giblin
created several accounts where he claimed he was a law enforcement officer and he
48
would make contact with individuals online (Rege, 2009). After creating a relationship
with a victim, he would then establish further contact through the telephone where he
would state he had interest in pursuing a serious sexual relationship (Rege, 2009).
Eventually Giblin would request financial help to relocate to the victim’s community
(Rege, 2009). Over time, the women would wire him money through Western Union
(Rege, 2009). Eventually Giblin was caught and charged in 2005 for defrauding nearly
130 women through dating sites (Rege, 2009). Collectively he gained $320,241 dollars
from victims throughout nine different states (Rege, 2009).
In another case, Robert Frost was a victim whose identity was stolen and used
among various dating websites (Rege, 2009). In this case scammers retrieved pictures
that were easily available on the internet (Rege, 2009). Robert Frost was a professional
racecar driver, and in 2007, Frost noticed on several occasions women were acting
strange towards him (Rege, 2009). For example, he was tracked down, sent flowers, and
recognized at several public airports by women he had never met in the past (Rege,
2009). Unaware to Frost, his photos had been uploaded on several different dating
websites by scammers to lure women (Rege, 2009). There were images of Frost on over
90 websites, and almost 80 different e-mail addresses and aliases were used (Rege, 2009).
Eventually an internet security consultant was hired by Frost to understand the severity of
his identity theft (Rege, 2009). At one point the consultant physically traveled to Nigeria
and met with one of the “Robert Frosts” being used on the internet (Rege, 2009). When
the consultant met with the man, he was a 24 year old whose true identity was George
McCall (Rege, 2009). McCall claimed that he had not stolen the photo and used it
49
illegally because he had retrieved the photograph from the internet legally (Rege, 2009).
Conclusively, the internet allows scammers to access all of the personal information
needed to assume someone else’s identity (Allison et al., 2005). Scammers can access
social networking websites and dating website profiles and sift through online identity
databases to find suitable targets to victimize (Allison et al., 2005). The internet provides
access to all of the sufficient information needed to victimize others (Allison et al., 2005).
Summary
To demonstrate the need for a review of interpersonal victimization on social
networking websites, the current study broadly reviewed the issues of sexual harassment,
stalking, sexual exploitation, and identity theft, and their transformation from traditional
environments to the internet. Numerous studies have examined the specific
characteristics and demographics of offenders as well as defined the risk-taking behaviors
that many victims have exhibited. Currently there is a perception that there are dangers
associated with the use of social networking websites (Perkel, 2008). Also, there is a
copious amount of literature supporting that with increased use of social networking
websites there is an increased risk for interpersonal victimization. Recognizing the need
to focus on interpersonal victimization and the characteristics of risk-taking behaviors has
provided more effective preventative strategies for users when encountering strangers on
social networking websites.
Studies have shown that sexual harassment is typically perpetrated by males
against females, with higher rates of sexual harassment occurring when females engage
in situations where there is a higher exposure to motivated offenders (DeCoster et al.,
50
1999). Studies have also shown that sexual harassment may occur in many places and
across various situations (Fisher et al., 2002). For example, the main form of sexual
harassment that occurs online is posting personal information and sharing unwanted
sexual photographs of others (Mitchell et al., 2005). One form of interpersonal
victimization that is closely associated with sexual harassment due to the common traits
that are exhibited between the two crimes is that of stalking.
The issue of stalking was not a highly recognized problem until actress Rebecca
Shaeffer was murdered in 1989 by a man who had been stalking her (McAnaney, Curliss,
& Abeyta-Price, 1993). Studies have shown that women are the primary victims of
stalking while men are typically the offenders (Mustaine & Tewksbury, 1999). Yet,
despite the recent increase in the number of anti-stalking statutes, little is known about
the extent of stalking due to a lack of research in the area. In addition to sexual
harassment and stalking, another detrimental crime in society is that of sexual
exploitation.
Previously reviewed examples of sexual exploitation consisted of prostitution,
sexual trafficking, and child pornography. Sexual exploitation is a form of interpersonal
victimization driven by exploiters (Fontana-Rosa, 2001). Ultimately, sexual exploitation
is driven by money (Blackburn, Taylor, & Davis, 2010). Over the past couple of
decades, research shows a convergence of similar characteristics among those victimized
by sexual exploitation (Kramer & Berg, 2003). Those who are most likely to share
similar characteristics are from single-parent households, are isolated, have family
problems, have low self-esteem, exhibit poor social skills, and are introverted (Kramer &
51
Berg, 2003). Ultimately, the negative and influential events that have occurred in these
victim lives help understand how sexually exploitive predators operate. The motivated
offenders seek suitable targets on the internet in an effort to sexually exploit them.
Another form of interpersonal victimization that is similarly destructive like sexual
exploitation is that of identity theft due to its common drive for money.
Most literature describes identity theft as being driven by financial gain through
fraudulently establishing credit, running up debt, or taking over someone else’s existing
financial accounts (Allison et al., 2005). Identity theft has become a serious problem
because it can take a long period of time before a victim is aware that a crime has taken
place against them (Allison et al., 2005). The Federal Trade Commission estimates that
10 million people or 4.6 percent of the U.S. adult population will become victimized
through identity theft within the year (Federal Trade Commission, 2000). This estimate
projects possible losses exceeding $50 billion dollars (Federal Trade Commission, 2000).
However, one of the most recent forms of fraud taking place on the internet is romance
scams through dating service websites (Rege, 2009). The digital environment for internet
daters allows users to remain anonymous, be instantaneous, alterable, and open to
interpretation, making online dating attractive and stimulating (Rege, 2009). Romance
fraud on the internet is a scam where victims believe that scammers have strong
emotional feelings for them, and the romance component of the scam act, acts as bait to
lure the victim. Once the scammer has lured the victim, the scammer then persists with
identity theft or financial fraud. Conclusively, the internet allows scammers to access all
of the personal information needed to assume someone else’s identity (Allison et al.,
52
2005). Scammers can access social networking websites and dating website profiles and
sift through online identity databases to find suitable targets to victimize (Allison et al.,
2005). The internet provides easy access to all of the sufficient information needed to
victimize others in numerous ways (Allison et al., 2005).
The routine activities theory has been frequently applied to the issues of sexual
harassment, stalking, sexual exploitation, and identity theft, and the majority of studies
have found that the actions of victims have a significant impact on their risk of
interpersonal victimization. The three variables that generally comprise the theory are the
presence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the lack of guardianship over a
person or thing.
The concept of motivated offenders can be applied to social networking websites
and can also be useful in explaining interpersonal victimization rates on the internet.
According to researchers, it is likely that there will be individuals on social networking
websites looking to commit criminal acts (Pierce, 2006). Additionally, the concept of a
suitable target may be applied to the use of computers and the internet because there is
easy access to victims. There are an abundant amount of users on the internet at one time
and the offenders can relatively remain anonymous. Finally, the concept of guardianship
is significant because users may perceive the internet as a safe place. For example, Pierce
(2006) found that there was a correlation between trusting strangers on the internet and
giving out personal information.
During the past 20 years, the number of individuals using the internet has
increased dramatically. For instance, individuals accessing social networking websites
53
are more likely to come into contact with potential motivated offenders. The rise in
popularity of the internet has essentially changed their routine activities. Rather than
using traditional forms of communicating in person, individuals now have the option of
using the internet, and they are using it more often. This shift in the routine activities of
these individuals will likely impact the types of crimes that are perpetrated against them.
According to the routine activities theory crimes will likely increase when there is a
convergence in time and space (cyber-space) of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and
lack of guardianship. By understanding why individuals exhibit risk-taking behaviors and
interact with strangers among social networking websites, preventative measures may be
created to eliminate online interpersonal victimization.
54
Chapter 3
Methodology
Traditionally, sources of data involving criminal events have been police
department records. Unfortunately, police records only include reported events. With
regard to victims, surveys attempt to provide reliable rates at which crime occurs and
may also provide distinguishable characteristics of common victims. Over time, surveys
have become one of the most popular ways of measuring people's concerns and fears
about crime. There are numerous studies involving offline victimization and behaviors
that lead to increased victimization; however, there are few studies that examine
victimization occurring while individuals use the internet. Recently, moral panic has
instilled fears about victimization as a result of using social networking websites. This
study was designed to gauge interaction among strangers and the potential for
victimization using social networking websites. This study intends to understand
prevention, awareness, and theory involving the interaction of strangers among such
websites. This chapter will discuss the methodology used by the researcher. The
methodology will describe the process used to select the sample, the instrument used to
collect the dataset, the variables used for the analysis, the coding of data, testable
hypotheses, and the types of analyses to follow.
Subjects
It was estimated for the 2010-2011 academic year that were approximately 1,600
criminal justice major undergraduate students enrolled at California State University,
Sacramento. Only the undergraduate students majoring in criminal justice were asked to
55
participate in a survey measuring personal computer and internet use. Moreover, by
implementing a confidence interval of 5.0 percent and confidence level of 95.0 percent, a
sample size of up to 310 subjects was necessary. In addition, according to the CSUS
academic programs website (www.csus.edu/HHS/cj/History-of-the-Division.html), class
sizes average fewer than 30 students; however, some criminal justice classes may now
have up to 75 students. With the class average of 30 students in mind, it was estimated
that 10 to 11 classes would be surveyed in an attempt to accommodate the approximate
310-subject sample size. Lastly, due to the possibility of instructors not accommodating
access to their classes, simple random sampling generating classes with overlapping time
schedules, and students being in multiple clusters, an estimated sample size of 310
subjects was only be used as an estimated target.
A simple random sampling technique was used to select classes at CSUS of criminal
justice major students enrolled in criminal justice undergraduate courses. First,
undergraduate criminal justice courses were selected as individual clusters. The clusters
were randomly selected with the use of a random sampling generator. The generator is
designed for researchers and students to generate random numbers or assign participants
to experimental conditions. The range of numbers were limited to the number of classes
that were being offered for the semester (each course code was numbered in
chronological order pertaining to its ascending number to eliminate any gaps that may be
present in course codes). With the use of the generator, one set of 50 classes was
generated. This process included grouping undergraduate students through criminal
justice courses. Simple random sampling was applied to the population of the
56
undergraduate criminal justice courses to provide for a random sampling of
undergraduate criminal justice courses. While only 10-11 classes were needed, 50 were
selected randomly to fill the sample in case some instructors refused access to their
classes. Student participation was completely voluntary and the students were free to end
their participation at any time without prejudice. All surveys were anonymous.
Instrument
A questionnaire was developed and administered to collect information on why
some students feel comfortable engaging with unknown persons through social
networking websites (see appendix A). The questionnaire included 20 close-ended items
and one open-ended comment prompt. These close-ended questions contained requests
for the subjects to indicate the types of activities performed on the internet, the location
of their computer use, how often the internet is used, whether or not there is presence of
another person while using the computer, whether or not they are registered to social
networking websites, information they may have posted on their personal social
networking website, whether or not their personal social networking website is
privatized, how often they have been requested or have "friended" an unknown person,
whether or not they have conversed with the unknown person they have "friended,"
whether or not they have given personal information beyond what is accessible on their
personal social networking website, whether or not they do any of the aforementioned
activities with the use of a mobile device, whether or not they feel safe engaging with
unknown persons among social networking websites, their gender, their age, and their
marital status. After each question is a list of responses that the respondent is asked to
57
mark as their most fitting response. A full set of exhaustive and mutually exclusive
responses are supplied. Other examples of questions simply ask the respondent to choose
"yes" or "no”, fill in a blank space with a number, and/or circle a spot on a continuum.
One open-ended question within the questionnaire allows respondents to offer
comments. They are asked to fill in this space only if they have circled a spot on a
continuum indicating whether or not they feel safe engaging with unknown persons
among social networking websites.
Data Collection
California State University, Sacramento undergraduate students enrolled in criminal
justice courses were asked to complete a questionnaire about their use of social
networking websites and engagement with unknown persons. Current research reveals
possible connections between social networking websites and increased likelihood of
victimization. The questionnaire was designed to explain why some individuals may feel
comfortable engaging with unknown persons through social networking websites.
Instructors of the classes that had been selected from the use of the random number
generator were e-mailed asking for permission to administer the survey indicated in Table
3.1. If permission was granted, the survey was arranged to be administered at the
beginning of each scheduled class. Once the class began, the subjects were briefed from a
script by the researcher (see appendix B), and a student volunteer from each of the
scheduled class sessions was asked to pass out the self-administered survey to all of the
students. During this time the researcher waited directly outside of the classroom while
the volunteer distributed the questionnaires. This ensured anonymity. Once the
58
questionnaire was completed, the subject passed the survey to the front of the class where
it was placed in a sealed envelope by the volunteer (the volunteer was also allowed to
participate in the study). After all of the questionnaires had been collected, the volunteer
then returned the sealed envelope to the researcher. The complete survey process
averaged 14 minutes in length.
Table 3.1:CSUS Criminal Justice Undergraduate Courses Selected
Course #
Course Description
CRJ-2
CRJ-101
Law of Crimes
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Research Methods
Crime and Punishment
Sexual Offenses and Offenders
The Structure and Function of
American Courts
Law of Arrest, Search, and Seizure
Police Administration
Contemporary Issues
CRJ-102
CRJ-114
CRJ-121
CRJ-123
CRJ-142
CRJ-144
# of Students
Enrolled
50
31
45
60
60
49
60
60
A total of 415 surveys were delivered to eight different selected courses as indicated
in Table 3.1, but only a total of 288 completed surveys were returned. Additionally,
demographic information for the sample is presented in Table 3.2. The current sample
was 49.7 percent male, 48.3 percent female, and 2.1 percent (N=6) of the population
declined to specify their gender. The average age of the participants was 25 and the
median was 22 years of age. As indicated in Table 3.3, the majority of the participants
were 21 years of age, making up 24.7 percent of the population. Only 3.5 percent (N=10)
of the population declined to specify their age. Table 3.2 also shows that the subjects
59
were predominantly White (42.0 percent), while 19.1 percent of the population were
Hispanic, 11.8 percent were Asian, 6.3 percent were Black, 2.8 percent were Pacific
Islander, 0.3 percent were American Indian, 8.7 percent were multiracial, 4.2 percent
identified themselves as being of other ethnicities, and 4.9 percent (N=14) of the
population declined to specify their ethnicity. In addition, Table 3.2 shows that the
subjects were predominantly single (85.1 percent), 6.3 percent were married, 4.2 percent
were in a domestic partnership, 1.7 percent were separated, 0.3 percent were divorced,
and 2.4 percent (N=7) of the population declined to specify their marital status.
60
Table 3.2:Demographics
Variables
Values
Gender
Age
Ethnicity
Marital Status
Percentage
Male
Female
Declined
15-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
Declined
American Indian
Asian
Black
Hispanic
White
Pacific Islander
Multiracial
Other
Declined
Married
Divorced
Separated
Single
Domestic Partner
Declined
49.7%
48.3%
2.1%
81.3%
13.5%
1.4%
0.3%
3.5%
0.3%
11.8%
6.3%
19.1%
42.0%
2.8%
8.7%
4.2%
4.9%
6.3%
0.3%
1.7%
85.1%
4.2%
2.4%
Table 3.3:Ages 15-25 by Age
Variable
Values
Percentage
Age
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
N
0.3%
2.8%
12.5%
24.7%
14.9%
11.5%
10.1%
4.5%
143
139
6
234
39
4
1
10
1
34
18
55
121
8
25
12
14
18
1
5
245
12
7
N
1
8
36
71
43
33
29
13
61
Testable Hypotheses
This study tests three hypotheses: one hypothesis for each of the dimensions of
the dependent variable; interpersonal victimization.
Dimension one of the dependent variable: Motivated Offenders.
H1A: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is an increase in the
number of motivated offenders encountered.
Dimension two of the dependent variable: Suitable Target.
H1B: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is an increase in the
number of suitable targets (subjects who provide personal information) that are easy to
access by an offender.
Dimension three of the dependent variable: Presence of Guardianship.
H1C: Interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is a lack of capable
guardianship of persons or things present.
Data Analysis
Completed questionnaire responses were coded and then entered into SPSS for
analysis. Analysis would examine if there were patterns concerning computer use,
internet use, and encounters with unknown persons of those utilizing social networking
websites. More specifically, this study sought to determine if there were specific
predictors that may increase one’s likelihood to engage with unknown persons among
social networking websites. The variables in this study were measured through a 21question survey on personal computer use, location of computer use, social networking
62
website use, types of personal information released, and experiences involving unknown
persons on the internet.
The dependent variable in this study was interpersonal victimization accessing the
internet for California State University, Sacramento undergraduate students. The
independent variables included activities performed on the computer, location of
computer use, frequency of internet use, accessible personal information, and social
networking website privatization. Furthermore, the dependent variable tests Cohen and
Felson’s (1979) routine activities theory suggesting that when the independent variables
are combined (suitable target, motivated offender, and lack of guardianship), they
produce a heightened effect on the level of interpersonal victimization rates. It was
hypothesized that one’s likelihood to engage with strangers among social networking
websites would have an effect on interpersonal victimization rates. As outlined in the
literature review, these interpersonal victimization rates include sexual harassment,
stalking, sexual exploitation, and identity theft.
The testable hypotheses for this study suggest that there will be variance in the
interpersonal victimization rates with each addition of the dependent variables (motivated
offenders, suitable targets, and lack of guardianship). To test these hypotheses, the data
reflecting the dependent variable was analyzed for incidence rates. The questionnaire (see
appendix A) can be broken down into three sections outlining Cohen and Felson’s (1979)
variables concerning a suitable target, motivated offender, and a lack of guardianship. For
instance, personal computer use, which includes using social networking websites and the
estimated amount of time using the internet, were analyzed to determine the incidence
63
rate of a suitable target. The types of personal information released and the experiences
involving unknown persons were analyzed to determine the incidence rate of a motivated
offender. Lastly, the location of computer use, restrictions of use, and the presence of
monitoring one’s use of a computer were analyzed to determine the incidence rate for a
lack of guardianship. SPSS produced the rates and percentages to determine the presence
of the aforementioned.
To further define these terms, the incidence rates are the percentage of those who
indicated computer and internet use, indicated the release of personal information and
encounters with unknown persons, and indicated a lack of guardianship. The incidence
rates express the number of experiences for each of the independent and dependent
variables expressed by each of the subjects from the 288-sample population. Once the
rates for the selected responses from the questionnaires were generated for each subject,
various tables were compiled to express the incidence rates of each question on the
survey. One table was compiled expressing personal information released and further
access to personal information by an unknown person to compare these rates with each
subject’s perception of safety. Another table was compiled expressing rates of page
privatization, rates of contact by unknown persons, rates asking to view a private page,
rates giving permission to view their pages, and rates of interaction with an unknown
person and then comparing these rates with each subject’s perception of safety. An
additional table expressing the percentages for the combined indicators of a suitable
target, motivated offender, and lack of guardianship was compiled; and finally, the rates
of a suitable target, motivated offender, and lack of guardianship were generated and a
64
table was compiled comparing the incidence rates with each demographic variable
(gender, age, ethnicity, and marital status) as a means to produce possible predictors of
interpersonal victimization. After all of the incidence rates and tables were compiled, a
few responses from the open-ended question were analyzed and reported. Only select
responses were reported illustrating perceptions of safety or unsafe experiences while
accessing the internet.
Limitations of Research Design
One of the most significant limitations to the research design is the small sample
size. There were approximately 1,600 criminal justice major undergraduate students
enrolled at California State University, Sacramento, and only these criminal justice major
undergraduate students were asked to participate in a survey. By implementing a
confidence interval of 5.0 percent and confidence level of 95.0 percent, this projected an
approximate sample size of up to 310 subjects; however, only 288 responses were
retrieved. A sample size of only 288 students could largely affect the findings of this
study by increasing the margin of error. Another limitation is the truthfulness and
accuracy of responses supplied by the respondents. The dishonesty or inaccurate
responses could significantly alter the findings of this research.
As discussed in chapter one, a limitation to this study is the omission of data from
each reporting subject. With an interviewer not being present, it is problematic because it
will be difficult to clarify incomplete answers. This could potentially affect the findings
of this research. Another limitation to this study is that the findings of this research may
not be generalized to all academic majors, as well as other college campuses and college-
65
aged youth in general. Applying specific rates of interpersonal victimizations found in
this research to other locations may not be possible or accurate. Lastly, criminal justice
majors may also be more aware of becoming potential victims. This may skew the results
in comparison to other academic majors that are not as aware. Further research examining
interpersonal victimization on social networking websites throughout the nation could
prove otherwise.
66
Chapter 4
Findings
This study examines the interactions between unknown persons and the potential
for interpersonal victimization while accessing the internet. Tables and figures in this
chapter indicate the rates of interpersonal victimization for 288 criminal justice major
undergraduate students from California State University, Sacramento. Various methods
of examination including descriptive and bivariate analyses were conducted to test the
hypotheses outlined in chapter three.
Suitable Target
Table 4.1 shows the breakdown of internet use for the students. An overwhelming
majority (95.5 percent) of participants reported using the internet for e-mail, 95.1 percent
used it for research, 83.0 percent accessed the web for shopping and social networking
websites, 62.2 percent planned travel, 43.8 percent played games, and 40.6 percent
communicated through an instant messenger. Despite the high levels of use, only 18.1
percent of the students accessed the internet for other purposes. Very few responded
using the internet for chat-room use (9.0 percent) and website design (5.6 percent).
67
Table 4.1:Use of Internet
Variables
E-mail
Research
Social Networking Websites
Shopping
Planning Travel
Gaming
Instant Message
Other
Chat-rooms
Website Design
Percentage
95.5%
95.1%
83.0%
83.0%
62.2%
43.8%
40.6%
18.1%
9.0%
5.6%
N
275
274
239
239
179
126
117
52
26
16
Personal computer use was compiled to understand the amount of time students
use the internet throughout a day. Appendices C through F show the time spent on the
internet over a 24-hour time period accessing e-mail, instant messenger services, chatrooms, and social networking websites. Numerous locations in the table are empty
because these times were not selected. Appendix C depicts the use of e-mail services. The
most common frequency of e-mail use was 1 hour (28.8 percent) and 2 hours (19.1
percent). Appendix D shows the use of instant messenger services, and an overwhelming
amount of the students (70.1 percent) suggested that they do not use instant messenger
services. Only 16.3 percent of the subjects indicated using an instant messenger leaving
12.2 percent of students utilizing instant messenger services over 2-6, 8, 10, and 24-hour
time periods. In Appendix E, 94.0 percent of the students indicated they do not use the
internet for chat-room purposes. Appendix F suggests a wide spectrum of social
networking website use. One of the highest single percentages (16.7 percent) of subjects
reported not using a social networking website page, although this does not mean that the
majority of the population does not access one. For instance, 24.0 percent access their
68
social networking website pages for at least 1 hour, 15.6 percent for 2 hours, 11.8 percent
for 3 hours, 4.2 percent for 4 hours, 9.4 percent for 5 hours, 3.5 percent for 6 hours, 1.0
percent for 8 hours, 5.2 percent for 10 hours, 0.3 percent for 12 hours, and 6.6 percent of
the students access their pages 24 hours a day.
Social networking websites are widely used by criminal justice major
undergraduate students at California State University, Sacramento. Table 4.2 shows that a
majority of the students (83.0 percent) access Facebook, 34.7 percent have a MySpace
account, 13.5 percent use Twitter, 7.3 percent of the students use another unnamed
version of a social networking website, and 3.5 percent of the students have a Friendster
or Xanga account.
Table 4.2:Social Networking Website Use
Variables
Percentage
N
Facebook
MySpace
Friendster
Twitter
Xanga
Other
239
100
10
39
10
21
83.0%
34.7%
3.5%
13.5%
3.5%
7.3%
Since the introduction of mobile phones, there has been a vast increase in the use
of internet and its offerings of e-mail, instant messenger services, chat-rooms, and social
networking websites. The subjects indicated whether or not they engaged in any of the
aforementioned activities using a mobile device such as a smart phone. Table 4.3
indicates that 60.1 percent of the subjects use a mobile device to access the internet and
other services.
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Table 4.3:Frequency of Mobile Device Use
Value
Yes
No
Declined
Percentage
N
37.5%
60.1%
108
173
2.4%
7
Lack of Guardianship
Table 4.4 illustrates the level of guardianship while using a computer. For
example, the location of computer use represents guardianship. The computer was most
often used (97.9 percent) within the subject’s home, 78.5 percent of the subjects reported
using the computer at school, 31.6 percent use a computer at a friend’s, 19.1 percent at
another location, and 16.7 percent at a coffee shop. Additionally, students were asked to
indicate their primary location of computer use. Tables 4.4 indicates that the majority of
the students (87.5 percent) used a computer at their home, and the remaining students
accessed a computer at school (7.6 percent), at a different location (3.1 percent), at a
friend’s (1.0 percent), or at a coffee shop (0.7 percent). Another component representing
more guardianship is the presence of another person in the same room while using a
computer. Table 4.4 points out that 37.5 percent of the subjects use a computer while
someone else is present in the room. Only one subject declined to answer this question.
Restrictions of computer use are the last component in Table 4.4 representing a lack of
guardianship. Table 4.4 implies that 3.8 percent of the students are not restricted from
specific content or the amount of time spent on a computer while using it. Only three
subjects declined to answer to their restrictions while accessing a computer suggesting
that a majority of the students (95.1 percent) are not restricted while using a computer.
70
Table 4.4:Guardianship of Computer Use
Variables
Values
Location of Computer Use
Primary Computer Location
Presence of Other
Restrictions
Home
School
Friend's
Other
Coffee Shop
Home
School
Friend's
Coffee Shop
Other
Presence
Declined
Presence
Declined
N
282
226
91
55
48
252
22
3
2
9
108
1
11
3
Percentage
97.9%
78.5%
31.6%
19.1%
16.7%
87.5%
7.6%
1.0%
0.7%
3.1%
37.5%
0.3%
3.8%
1.0%
Motivated Offender
Individuals post various kinds of personal information on social networking
websites. Figure 1 indicates the distribution of information posted on each subject’s
social networking website. Five specific characteristics were posted most often, pictures
(81.3 percent), gender (80.2 percent), age (66.7 percent), relationship status (65.4
percent), and hobbies (50.3 percent). The remaining characteristics were not as prevalent,
for instance, extracurricular activities were posted by 32.0 percent, goals by 21.5 percent,
a telephone number by 8.7 percent, descriptive characteristics such as eye color were
posted by 8.3 percent, other characteristics by 8.0 percent, distress problems by 6.6
percent, and a home address was posted by 5.2 percent.
71
Number of Participants
Figure 1: Type of Personal Information Posted on Social
Networking Website
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Yes
No
Personal Information Posted on Website
Figure 2 indicates that subjects who provide unknown persons with descriptive
information further than what is accessible on their website. Comparing Figure 2 with
Figure 1, it is apparent that the level of information released from a private social
networking page to an unknown person is very small. Figure 2 shows that personal
information given to an unknown person beyond what is accessible on their website
decreased significantly when compared to Figure 1. A subject’s age was the most
common characteristic given to a stranger (10.8 percent), and the least common was the
other category by only 1.4 percent.
72
Number of Participants
Figure 2: Access of Personal Information Provided to an
Unknown Person on Social Networking Websites
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Yes
No
Personal Information Released to an Unknown Person
Crosstabulation tables were compiled in order to analyze the perception of safety
expressed by each subject (see Appendices G through K). The analysis indicated various
levels of safety that the student’s experience while accessing social networking websites.
Furthermore, the analysis compared the rates of each characteristic posted by subjects on
their social networking website with their perception of safety. These analyses also
compare the rates of each characteristic that was granted further access to unknown
persons by subjects on their social networking website with their perception of safety.
One of the most common characteristics (age) posted on a social networking
website was also one of the most feared characteristics to be accessible to strangers. In
spite of the fear, 43 subjects posted their age while 21 subjects who indicated feeling
unsafe did not post their age. In contrast, eight subjects felt safe posting their age while
only one subject who did not post their age felt safe. Six subjects who reported feeling
73
unsafe did permit further access to the characteristic of age to an unknown person while
60 of the subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. In contrast,
two people felt safe permitting further access to age by an unknown person while seven
subjects who did not permit further access to age indicated feeling safe. Collectively, the
majority of the students indicated they did not feel safe whether they did or did not post
their age or allow further access to the characteristic of age.
Gender was another one of the most common characteristics feared to be
accessible on a social networking website, and despite feeling unsafe, 52 subjects posted
their gender, and 12 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post their gender.
Only eight subjects felt safe posting their gender while one subject who did not post their
gender felt safe. Six subjects who reported feeling unsafe did permit further access to the
description of gender to an unknown person while 60 of the subjects who reported feeling
unsafe did not permit further access. Meanwhile, two people felt safe permitting further
access to gender by an unknown person while seven subjects who did not permit further
access to gender indicated feeling safe. Overall, the majority of the students felt unsafe
whether they did or did not post their gender or allow further access to the characteristic.
While they reported feeling unsafe, two subjects posted descriptive characteristics
on a social networking website and 62 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post
descriptive characteristics. It was also found that four subjects felt safe posting their
descriptive characteristics while only five subjects who did not post descriptive
characteristics felt safe. Three subjects who reported feeling unsafe did permit further
access to descriptive characteristics to an unknown person while 63 of the subjects who
74
reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. Only one person felt safe permitting
further access to descriptive characteristics by an unknown person while eight subjects
who did not permit further access to descriptive characteristics indicated feeling safe. The
subjects expressed a lack of safety even if they did or did not post their descriptive
characteristics or allow further access to the characteristic.
Hobbies were found to be one of the most common characteristics posted on a
social networking website, and it was found to be one of the most common descriptive
characteristics that made subjects feel unsafe for others to possess. Twenty-nine of the
students that felt unsafe posted their hobbies on a social networking website while 35
subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post their hobbies. In contrast, five subjects
felt safe posting their hobbies while only four subjects who did not post their hobbies felt
safe. It was indicated that three subjects who reported feeling unsafe did permit further
access to the characteristic of hobbies to an unknown person while a majority of the
subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. In addition, two
people felt safe permitting further access to hobbies to an unknown person while seven
subjects who did not permit further access to hobbies indicated feeling safe. In short,
most students indicated feeling unsafe posting or not posting their hobbies, or providing
further access to strangers about their hobbies.
Pictures were found to be one of the most common personal identifiers posted by
students on their social networking website as well as one of the most feared
characteristics to be accessible to strangers. Fifty-four subjects felt unsafe posting their
pictures on a social networking website and ten subjects who did not post their pictures
75
also felt unsafe. Nine subjects felt safe posting their pictures while zero subjects did not
post their pictures in order to feel safe. Five subjects who reported feeling unsafe did
permit further access to their pictures by an unknown person while 61 of the subjects who
reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. In contrast, two people felt safe
permitting further access to pictures by an unknown person while seven subjects who did
not permit further access to pictures indicated feeling safe. Students felt unsafe on the
internet if they did or did not post personal pictures or give them out to unknown persons.
In spite of feeling unsafe, six subjects posted their telephone number on a social
networking website while 20 percent indicated feeling unsafe did not post telephone
number. Very few subjects (2) felt safe posting their telephone number while seven
subjects who did not post their telephone number felt safe. Four subjects who reported
feeling unsafe did permit further access to their telephone number by an unknown person
while most (62) of the subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access.
Only one person felt safe permitting further access to their telephone number by an
unknown person while eight subjects who did not permit further access to their telephone
number indicated feeling safe. Nearly all of the subjects report feeling unsafe by either
posting or not posting their telephone number or by providing their telephone number to
an unknown person.
Only five subjects posted their home location on a social networking website even
though they felt unsafe, and a majority of the subjects (59) did not post their home
location also feeling unsafe. Two subjects felt safe posting their home location while
seven subjects who did not post their home location felt safe. Almost none of the subjects
76
(one) reported feeling unsafe, but did permit further access to their home location by an
unknown person; however, 65 of the subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit
further access. It was indicated that one person felt safe permitting further access to their
home location by an unknown person while eight subjects who did not permit further
access to their home location indicated feeling safe. Almost all of the subjects feel unsafe
posting or not posting their home address on a social networking website or permitting
further access to the characteristic.
Even though they felt unsafe doing so, twelve subjects posted their extracurricular
activities on a social networking website while 52 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe
did not post their extracurricular activities. In contrast, seven subjects felt safe posting
their extracurricular activities while two subjects who did not post their extracurricular
activities felt safe. Only one subject who reported feeling unsafe did permit further access
to their extracurricular activities by an unknown person while 65 of the subjects who
reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. One person felt safe permitting
further access to extracurricular activities by an unknown person while eight subjects
who did not permit further access to their extracurricular activities indicated feeling safe.
Most subjects feel threatened for their safety if they did or did not post their
extracurricular activities or allow further access to the activities.
In spite of feeling unsafe, nine subjects posted their goals on a social networking
website while 55 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post their goals. In
contrast, four subjects felt safe posting their goals while five subjects who did not post
their goals felt safe. Only one subject who reported feeling unsafe did permit further
77
access to their goals by an unknown person while a large portion (65) of the subjects who
reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. Two people indicated feeling safe
and permitted further access to their goals by an unknown person while seven subjects
who did not permit further access to their goals indicated feeling safe. Subjects that did or
did not post their goals or allow further access to the characteristic of goals expressed
feeling unsafe.
While they reported feeling unsafe, four subjects posted their distress problems on
a social networking website while 60 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post
their distress problems. One subject felt safe posting their distress problems while eight
subjects who did not post their distress problems felt safe. None of the subjects permitted
further access about their distress problems to an unknown person because they felt
unsafe while 64 of the subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access.
In addition, none of the subjects felt safe permitting further access to their distress
problems by an unknown person while nine subjects who did not permit further access to
their distress problems indicated feeling safe. Collectively, a pattern of feeling unsafe was
indicated by the subjects whether they did or did not post their distress problems or allow
further access to the characteristic.
A subject’s relationship status was found to be one of the most common
descriptive characteristics posted on a social networking website. Despite feeling fearful,
38 subjects posted their relationship status on a social networking website while 26
subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post their relationship status. In contrast,
eight subjects felt safe posting their relationship status while one subject who did not post
78
their relationship status felt safe. Few subjects (3) who reported feeling unsafe did permit
further access to their relationship status by an unknown person while most (63) of the
subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. Only two people felt
safe permitting further access to their relationship status by an unknown person while
seven subjects who did not permit further access to their relationship status indicated
feeling safe. A majority of the subjects feel unsafe whether they did or did not post their
relationship status or allow further access to their status.
Despite feeling unsafe, six subjects posted other information on a social
networking website while 58 subjects who indicated feeling unsafe did not post other
information. Two subjects felt safe posting other information while seven subjects who
did not post other information felt safe. None of the subjects permitted further access to
other information by an unknown person because they felt unsafe while a large portion
(66) of the subjects who reported feeling unsafe did not permit further access. In contrast,
none of the students felt safe permitting further access to other information by an
unknown person while nine subjects who did not permit further access to other
information indicated feeling safe. The subjects expressed a lack of safety even if they
did or did not post other information or allow further access to other descriptive
characteristics.
Comparing the tables of descriptive information posted willingly by subjects with
the tables representing the data when students permit further access to descriptive
information by unknown persons demonstrates a trend of feeling unsafe. Several
descriptive categories reveal a large number of subjects that post information willingly on
79
their social networking website. A shocking discovery is that they do so while feeling
unsafe. In addition, several descriptive categories reveal an extremely small number of
subjects who permit further access to personal information by an unknown person
because they do not feel safe doing so. The few who permit further access to strangers are
trusting of unknown persons and exhibit risk-taking behaviors.
Similar to the previous analyses illustrating each subject’s perception of safety are
Appendices G to K. Appendices G through K were compiled to illustrate the level of
safety subjects perceive while having their social networking website private, being
requested by unknown persons to view their privatized website, allowing strangers
permission to view their privatized page, and conversing with unknown persons through
the introduction of a social networking website.
Appendix G shows that 54 subjects felt unsafe even though their website was
privatized whereas seven subjects felt unsafe not having their social networking website
privatized. Unfortunately, it is not known why these subjects had an unsecured page
while they felt unsafe. Additionally, Appendix G shows that only six subjects felt safe
having their website privatized whereas three subjects felt safe not having their page
privatized. Collectively, a majority of the students felt unsafe even if their page was or
was not privatized.
Appendix H indicates how many strangers contacted a subject through their social
networking website and whether or not the student felt safe during these contacts.
Appendix H shows that 66 students were contacted up to 100 times and that they felt
unsafe during these contacts. In contrast, Appendix H also points out that only eight
80
students were contacted up to 100 times by a stranger but they felt safe, and only one
student felt safe being contacted by a stranger within 901 and 1000 times. A majority of
the students demonstrated feeling unsafe when being contacted by a stranger.
Appendix I approximates how many times a person unknown to the subject
requested permission to view his or her profile and if the subject felt safe or unsafe during
these requests. As indicated in Appendix I, 66 subjects indicated being requested up to
100 times by a stranger and feeling unsafe. In contrast, Appendix I also points out that
seven subjects were requested by a stranger up to 100 times, one subject requested by a
stranger 201-300 times, and one subjects requested by a stranger 901-1000 times. Most
students indicated feeling unsafe when being requested permission by a stranger to access
their personal social networking website.
Appendix J indicates how many times a stranger was granted permission to view
his or her website and whether or not the subject felt safe or unsafe doing so. Of the times
when someone unknown to the student requested their permission, the student indicated
whether none, a few, some, most, or all were granted access. As indicated in Appendix J,
approximately 56 students felt unsafe being requested permission and therefore did not
allow the stranger access to their page. Appendix J also shows that only three students
felt unsafe while permitting a few strangers to view their profile. It is unknown why these
three students provided the strangers access to their privatized page even though they felt
unsafe. In contrast, Appendix J illustrates that only seven students for each of the
categories in all felt safe denying permission or granting permission to the requesting
81
stranger. It is evident that the majority of the students felt unsafe being requested
permission by a stranger to view their personal website.
Appendix K provides the perception of safety experienced by a subject while
deciding to converse with an unknown person at a social networking website. This
appendix indicates that a majority of the students experienced feeling unsafe and
therefore did not converse with a stranger through the website. For instance, 58 students
felt unsafe and did not converse with the unknown person whereas five students did even
though they felt unsafe. It is not known why the five subjects decided to converse with
the unknown person while feeling unsafe. In addition, Appendix K also shows that four
subjects would feel safe conversing with a stranger at a social networking website but
never have, and only five subjects have conversed with strangers while experiencing a
level of safety.
It is evident in the data depicted in Appendices G to K that a majority of the
students do not feel safe engaging with unknown persons at a social networking website.
Students are commonly approached by strangers to view their privatized website or to
converse, but the students expressed not feeling comfortable granting permission or
making further contact. Only a few students indicated feeling safe when contacted, giving
permission, or conversing with an unknown person. These select individuals who interact
with strangers are trusting of unknown persons and exhibit risk-taking behaviors.
82
Predictors of Interpersonal Victimization: Combination of Suitable Target,
Motivated Offender, and Lack of Guardianship
A figure was generated to show how often a subject uses e-mail services, instant
messenger services, chat-rooms, and social networking websites. As shown in Figure 3,
uses of internet were combined with the use of a social networking account to indicate
the likelihood of becoming a suitable target. Figure 3 illustrates that 88.2 percent of the
students possess a social networking account and use e-mail services at least once a day,
82.0 percent of the students have a social networking account and use it regularly, and
38.2 percent have a social networking website and use an instant messenger commonly.
In contrast, chat-room services were rarely used for those who have a social networking
account (84.0 percent).
Number of Participants
Figure 3: Indication of a Suitable Target:
Social Networking Website and Internet Use
300
250
200
150
100
SNW Account No
50
SNW Account Yes
0
No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes
E-mail
Instant
Message
Chatroom
SNW
Use of Internet
By comparing further access to personal information and the number of times a
subject conversed with an unknown person through a social networking website, will
83
indicate how likely a subject is to place themselves within proximity of a motivated
offender. Figure 4 illustrates the presence of a motivated offender by combining the
subjects who permitted further access to personal information and the subjects who
conversed with a stranger at a social networking website. It was hypothesized that
interpersonal victimization rates will increase when there is an increase in the
combination of dependent variables. Presence of a motivated offender is indicated in
Figure 4 illustrating the level of risk that subjects place themselves to experience
interpersonal victimization. Figure 4 shows that 21.5 percent of the subjects released
personal information and conversed with an unknown person while only 8.3 percent of
the students conversed with an unknown person but did not give out personal information
about themselves. In contrast, Figure 4 also suggests that the majority of the students did
not converse with an unknown person or give out personal information.
Number of Participants
Figure 4: Contribution of Personal Information and
Experiences with Unknown Persons on Social
Networking Websites
120
100
80
Provided Further
Access to Personal
Information No
60
Provided Further
Access to Personal
Information Yes
40
20
0
No
Yes
Conversed with Unknown Person
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A lack of restrictions and guardianship along with the location of computer use
describes the level of guardianship over each of the subjects. An overwhelming majority
of the students did not have restrictions or another person present in the same room while
using a computer in their home. Figure 5 shows that 84.0 percent of the students do not
have restrictions while using their computer in their home, and 54.5 percent of the
students do not have a person monitoring their computer use in the home.
Figure 5: Location of Computer Use and Guardianship
Number of Participants
250
200
Computer Location Home
150
Computer Location School
100
Computer Location Coffee
Shop
50
Computer Location Other
0
No
Yes
Guardian
No
Yes
Restrictions
Presence of Guardianship
The percentages for the combined indicators of a suitable target, motivated
offender, and lack of guardianship are shown in Table 4.5. This table also compares those
rates with the incidence rates with each demographic variable (gender, age, ethnicity, and
marital status) to produce possible predictors of interpersonal victimization. Even though
percentages were used to simplify the presence of a predictor for interpersonal
victimization, high percentages for the combination of all three independent variables
85
(suitable target, motivated offender, lack of guardianship, were not present. Despite this
finding, the data strongly suggest that students are indeed suitable targets, experience
motivated offenders at various rates, and lack a great amount of guardianship placing
them at a high level of risk for interpersonal victimization.
Table 4.5: Amount of Students Reporting Online Behaviors by
Suitable Target, Motivated Offender, Lack of Guardianship,
and by Demographics
Suitable
Motivated
Target
Offender
Lack of
Guardianship
Gender
Male
Female
48.9%
49.6%
52.4%
46.6%
46.7%
52.0%
15-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
82.4%
13.3%
1.2%
0.4%
85.4%
12.1%
1.5%
0.3%
86.3%
10.1%
0.8%
0.4%
0.4%
11.7%
5.6%
18.4%
43.2%
3.0%
9.0%
4.5%
0.6%
10.7%
8.6%
16.6%
42.4%
2.6%
11.2%
5.5%
0.1%
13.0%
10.9%
21.6%
33.1%
1.1%
11.0%
3.0%
6.0%
0.4%
1.9%
86.5%
3.0%
4.6%
0.3%
1.2%
90.3%
3.5%
5.4%
0.4%
1.3%
84.2%
7.3%
Age
Ethnicity/Race
American Indian
Asian
Black
Hispanic
White
Pacific Islander
Multiracial
Other
Marital Status
Married
Divorced
Separated
Widowed
Single
Domestic Partner
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Subject Response
After evaluating the encounters with unknown persons and the rates of perceived
safety while accessing the internet for California State University, Sacramento
undergraduate students, it has become clear that a majority of the students feel unsafe. In
addition, the preceding tables and figures showed that a majority of the students possess a
social networking account, use it often, and access them with the use of a mobile device.
Even though a majority of the subjects are placing themselves at risk with heightened
levels of being a suitable target, allowing further access to personal information by an
unknown person was estimated to be significantly low. However, an overwhelming
majority of the students expressed a lack of guardianship. The computer was often used
at home without the presence of another or having restrictions limit computer function.
Conclusively, there were subjects who placed themselves at risk by exhibiting risky
behaviors and combining the variables of a suitable target, motivated offender, and a lack
of guardianship, but the number of subjects who collectively placed themselves at risk
was extremely low. To demonstrate why these subjects feel safe placing themselves at
risk, a few of the open-ended questions will be reviewed.
The following will analyze responses to the open-ended question asking to
explain why the subject may feel safe or unsafe engaging with unknown persons over the
internet. The first section will review those who expressed feeling safe. Five responses
were selected due to their unique remarks of safety. It was found that many respondents
felt safe using the internet to search for relationships. For example, a respondent chose a
seven on the safety continuum and expressed, “I only talk to girls my age that I find
87
attractive, so I feel safe in the fact that I am just trying to get to know them for potential
dating purposes.” Another respondent selected an eight on the safety continuum and
expressed, “I usually keep it simple. I only talk to them because we both game or have
the same interest I keep it to that.” Oddly, one respondent chose a nine on the continuum
even though he expressed “the way technology is used today and what can be traced and
found scares me.” The most notable respondent circled the highest level of safety on the
continuum (10), and stated, “Because if anyone has cause for concern it would be them
not me.” This response is alarming as a potential victim that there is no consequence for
them, they don’t need to be careful.
In contrast to the previous responses, the following will review those who
expressed feeling unsafe engaging with unknown persons over the internet. Six responses
were selected due to their unique remarks. After selecting a four on the safety continuum,
one respondent stated, “I feel unsafe for the reason I don’t know who they are. They
might have fake pictures? I don’t engage with nobody that I don’t know.” Another
respondent circled a three on the safety continuum and remarked, “I did an essay in an
English class regarding a young girl Judy Cajuste who was murdered, believed by a man
on MySpace.” Next, a subject marked a three on the safety continuum and expressed,
“Once, one guy told me, he knew where I lived. So I’m scared that some of them know
more about me than I want them to know. So I feel unsafe with most of them especially
guys.” Another subject only selected a three on the safety continuum even though he had
previously “been a past victim of identity fraud.” Additionally, many responses indicated
that males often contact females over social networking websites. For example, a
88
respondent felt unsafe and indicated so by selecting a three on the safety continuum, she
stated that, “Usually the unknown people contacting me are males. They usually contact
me because they think I am attractive. Many females are hurt from communicating with
males they don’t know.” The last response selected indicated the highest level of feeling
unsafe (1) on the safety continuum. This respondent stated, “I had some guy that
wouldn’t leave me alone and it’s scary.”
Summary
Incidence rates of interpersonal victimization were analyzed to address the
phenomenon of moral panic discussed in previous research about social networking
websites. The testable hypotheses stating interpersonal victimization rates will increase
when there is an increase in the number of motivated offenders (H1A), suitable target
(H1B), and presence of guardianship (H1C) were not supported by the data. The majority
of the subjects indicated a high level of personal computer use, which includes using
social networking websites and an estimated amount of time using the internet suggesting
an increased likelihood of becoming a suitable target. Only a few subjects (N=62)
indicated releasing personal information and conversing with unknown persons while
using social networking websites which increases their likelihood of being placed with
proximity of a motivated offender. Most of the subjects indicated computer use within the
home, minimal restrictions of use, and a limited presence of monitoring one’s use of a
computer while using social networking websites suggesting an overall lack of
guardianship. Cohen and Felson’s (1979) routine activities theory suggesting that when
the variables are combined (suitable target, motivated offender, and lack of
89
guardianship), they produce a heightened effect on the level of interpersonal
victimization rates; however, it was not clear whether all three variables were present in
combination and interpersonal victimization rates were not accounted for. It was not
feasible to construct a questionnaire asking subjects to recall incidents of victimization
because of the level of risk involved. Furthermore, the goal of the current study was to
determine why subjects engage with unknown persons among social networking
websites, so the frequencies of interpersonal victimizations were not surveyed. However,
the questionnaire was created with an open-ended question in hope that subjects would
disclose incidents of interpersonal victimization. Only a few respondents included
experiences of victimization as outlined in the subject’s response section.
90
Chapter 5
Summary and Conclusions
Reports from media have raised fears about internet use and a person’s general
safety. Moral panic initiated research focusing on the safety of uses of the internet such as
interacting with strangers, posting personal information, and accessing social networking
websites. Researchers suggest that the internet may facilitate victimization by making
suitable targets more accessible to motivated offenders and creating opportunities for
predators to be alone with victims. It is possible that motivated offenders can find
suitable targets more easily online than through conventional social networks. The
efficiency of email services, instant messenger services, chat-room services, and social
networking websites allow for fast and private exchanges of personal information, which
motivated offenders can use to develop relationships and seduce victims.
The routine activities theory is applicable to the current study because of the
presence of three variables, suitable target, motivated offender, and lack of guardianship.
This theory states that changes in crime are due to the opportunities of offenders, and is
based on the presumption that individuals performing daily routines may encounter an
incident of victimization. This study suggests that a person’s lifestyle increases their risk
of being exposed to motivated offenders and interpersonal victimization. In this study, the
students were viewed as a suitable target for offenders because there was an ease of
access to individuals through social networking websites. A motivated offender has the
advantage of grooming numerous individuals at one time, so the types of personal
information released and the experiences involving unknown persons were analyzed to
91
determine the incidence rate of a motivated offender. Lack of guardianship occurs when
individuals do not use social networking websites with caution due to the belief that
conversing with a stranger over the internet is not a potential threat; therefore, the
location of computer use, restrictions of use, and the presence of monitoring one’s use of
a computer were analyzed to determine the incidence rate for a lack of guardianship. The
computer was most often used (97.9 percent) within the subject’s home, a majority of the
students (95.1 percent) are not restricted while using a computer, and 37.5 percent of the
subjects use a computer while someone else is present in the room.
The current study has shown that there is a high rate of California State
University, Sacramento criminal justice major students who use social networking
websites. Facebook is the most commonly used social networking website accessed by
83.0 percent of the subjects. It is possible the remaining 17.0 percent may not use social
networking websites as a result of protecting oneself from unwanted individuals viewing
personal information. Surprisingly, only 13.9 percent of the subjects with an account
displayed their personal information publicly, while 77.4 percent had private pages.
When analyses were conducted to see if online exposure affected the incidence
rates for solicitation, it was expected that there would be a relationship with those having
the lowest levels of privacy being contacted the most, and those with private profiles
would be contacted the least. The current research found that many individual internet
behaviors are not associated with higher rates of unsafe solicitations by unknown
persons, but there is increased risk associated with engaging in online risk-taking. The
following behaviors indicate a risky pattern of internet use. Over 91.0 percent of the
92
subjects posted personal information online and only 6.3 percent did not. Furthermore, of
those who posted personal information, 60.1 percent gave further access to personal
information to strangers, and only 34.4 percent did not permit further access to personal
information. It was found that of the 60.1 percent that granted access to personal
information, only small amounts were distributed through various descriptive categories.
Further access to age was distributed by 10.8 percent of the subjects, gender by 10.4
percent, descriptive characteristics by 5.6 percent, hobbies by 8.7 percent, pictures by 8.0
percent, telephone number by 7.3 percent, home location by 2.1 percent, extracurricular
activities by 4.5 percent, goals by 4.9 percent, distress problems by 2.4 percent,
relationship status by 9.0 percent, and other information by 1.4 percent. Permission to
view a subject’s privatized social networking website by an unknown person were
analyzed. None of the strangers were granted permission by 66.3 percent of the subjects,
a few were granted permission by 17.4 percent, some were granted permission by 3.8
percent, most were granted permission by 1.7 percent, and all were granted permission by
1.0 percent. Subjects indicated conversing with these unknown persons 30.6 percent of
the time.
Students who create profiles or posted pictures of themselves online are more
likely to be contacted online by strangers, but researchers believe that these individuals
aren’t at risk. The largest percentage of those contacted (18.1) indicated that they had
been contacted on average by 10 separate unknown persons. It is interactive behaviors,
such as conversing online with unknown people that place them more at risk of
interpersonal victimization. Over 65 percent of the subjects indicated that they were
93
requested permission by a stranger to view their private social networking website, but
only 24.7 percent of the subjects granted permission to these individuals. Additionally,
30.6 percent of the subjects conversed with the unknown people that requested
permission to view their site. The most notable findings in the research indicate that an
overwhelming majority of the students do not feel safe engaging with unknown persons
on a social networking website. Students are commonly approached by strangers to view
their privatized website or to converse, but the students expressed not feeling comfortable
granting permission or making further contact. Only a few students indicated feeling safe
when contacted, giving permission, or conversing with an unknown person. These select
individuals who interact with strangers are trusting of unknown persons and exhibit risktaking behaviors.
To further assess interpersonal victimization among social networking websites,
the data were analyzed to see if any trends were present. Trends for the combination of a
suitable target, motivated offender, and lack of guardianship would indicate predictors of
interpersonal victimization. Indication of a suitable target was implied by analyzing those
who had a social networking website account and used various internet communication
services. Email services were used throughout a 24 hour period by 88.2 percent of the
subjects, social networking websites by 82.0 percent, instant messenger services by 38.2
percent, and chat-rooms by 8.4 percent. Indication of a motivated offender was implied
by analyzing those who permitted further access to personal information and conversed
with unknown persons at a social networking website. Only 21.5 percent of students
released information and conversed with an unknown person while 8.3 percent conversed
94
with an unknown person but did not give out personal information. Surprisingly, students
did not converse with an unknown person or give out personal information (24.7
percent). Indication for a significant level of guardianship was implied by analyzing the
student’s restrictions, guardianship, and location of computer use. A large portion of
students (84.0 percent) did not have restrctions or the presence of a guardian while using
a computer in their home. Ultimately, the combination of all three independent variables
were not present at high percentages, but the data strongly suggest that students are
indeed suitable targets, experience motivated offenders at various rates, and lack a great
amount of guardianship placing them at a high level of risk for interpersonal
victimization.
The goal of the current study was to determine why subjects engage with
unknown persons among social networking websites, so frequencies of interpersonal
victimizations were not surveyed. However, the questionnaire was created with an openended question in hope that subjects would disclose their experiences with unknown
persons on social networking websites. Few subject responses indicated students engage
with unknown persons whether or not they feel safe, but an overwhelming majority of the
students do not feel safe engaging with strangers. It was disclosed that some subjects
interact with strangers in search of potential relationships, because they play video games
together, or that they don’t mind conversing with strangers because they don’t feel
threatened for their safety.
95
Implications for Future Research
Those who visit online communication mediums may be more at risk than others. It is
believed that those who regularly use the internet to communicate with strangers are
more likely to have problems with their parents, suffer sadness, loneliness, or depression,
have histories of sexual abuse, and engage in risky behavior compared to those who do
not. It was found that many subjects use the internet for e-mail services, instant
messenger services, and social networking websites, but rather than focusing on the types
of online sites or posting personal information, prevention messages should focus on
online interactions because internet-initiated crimes come about through direct
communications between motivated offenders and suitable targets.
Incidents of interpersonal victimization driven by the internet against individuals
are believed to be underreported because victims may feel embarrassed, not view the
incident as a crime, or not view themselves as being a victim. People who send personal
information such as their gender, hobbies, and personal pictures to strangers are more
likely to be solicited by them. However, posting personal information on the internet may
not be as risky as some fear, but there is increased risk associated with the kinds of
potentially risky online behaviors exhibited. There are several behaviors that are often
deemed risky for people to engage in such as granting permission to unknown persons to
view a privatized social networking website, conversing with unknown persons, or
discussing further relations in an offline environment. It is believed that as the number of
different types of these behaviors increase, so do the odds of online interpersonal
victimization. Those who interact with strangers over the internet engaging in a high
96
number of risky behaviors increase their level for concern compared to those who do not
exhibit risky behaviors while interacting with strangers. Further analyses should be
conducted in this area calculating subject’s frequency of victimization in order to account
for all incidents and determine if online crimes are underreported. This may also help
determine if all online behaviors are indeed risky.
Motivated offenders use internet communications such as e-mail services, instant
messenger services, chat-rooms, and social networking websites to meet and develop
intimate relationships with potential victims. Corrections, victimization, and psychology
researchers should use the experiences of known criminals and disclose their tactics used
to select victims. In addition, further research should target the demographics of criminals
that use internet communications. These methods will help create messages, awareness,
and strategies for prevention.
It was indicated by several subjects that they use social networking websites for
dating purposes. It would be interesting to know the frequency of use of social
networking websites strictly for dating purposes. It would also be interesting to know the
frequency of those who follow people’s personal information posted through social
networking websites without ever contacting them. Further research could reveal how
often strangers stalk and/or follow public or private social networking profiles, blogs, or
online journals.
Unfortunately, the questionnaire did not ask subjects whether or not their social
networking website was initially set as a privatized page. Therefore, it is unknown
whether previous victimization motivated the subject to change his or her page to private.
97
It may be assumed that a majority of the students originally had public profiles but then
changed the setting to private as a result of incidents of victimization or contact by
unknown persons. With a subject changing his or her privacy setting this would prevent
future incidents from occurring. Future research should ask subjects whether or not their
social networking website was originally open for to the public to view.
In this study, levels of contact with unknown persons were considered to be low
as well as the amount of permission or further access granted to personal information. It
is possible that criminal justice students could have a heightened awareness of personal
security and victimization. Further research examining interpersonal victimization on
social networking websites throughout the nation could prove otherwise.
98
APPENDICES
99
APPENDIX A
Questionnaire
* If you have already participated in this survey, please, do not participate again*
You are invited to participate in a study that seeks California State University,
Sacramento undergraduate students to complete a questionnaire about their use of
computers, the Internet, and social networking websites. The data from this questionnaire
will be used to complete a thesis in partial requirement to obtain a masters degree in
Criminal Justice. You were selected as a possible participant in this study through
random selection of undergraduate Criminal Justice courses.
Participation is completely voluntary, students may end their participation at any
time, and all responses will be kept anonymous. If any of the questions make you feel
uncomfortable, you may refuse to answer them. All of the information provided will only
be analyzed by me and the thesis committee. Therefore results from the research will be
reported with no identifiers.
If you decide to participate, please complete the attached questionnaire. It may
take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete the questionnaire.
Participation in this study certifies that participants are 18 years of age or older.
Your decision whether or not to participate will not prejudice your future relationships
with the California State University, Sacramento. Your return of this questionnaire is
implied consent.
100
Please feel free to ask questions regarding this study. You may contact either
professor Tim Croisdale at croisdale@csus.edu or me, at bj277@saclink.csus.edu later if
you have additional questions.
Thank you for your participation.
Brandon Jaimes
1) Please indicate your activities performed on the Internet. Check all that apply.
□ Research
□ Gaming
□ Planning travel
□ Website design
□ Shopping
□ E-mail
□ Instant message
□ Chat rooms
□ Social networking websites
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ None
□ Decline to Answer
2) Please indicate the location of your computer when using it. Check all that
apply.
□ Home (any room)
101
□ School
□ Friend’s
□ Coffee shop
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ Not Applicable
□ Decline to Answer
3) Please indicate the location where you most frequently use a computer. Check
one of the following:
□ Home (any room)
□ School
□ Friend’s
□ Coffee shop
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ Not Applicable
□ Decline to Answer
4) Please indicate how often you use each of the following on a typical day.
Please specify by filling in the spaces provided.
E-mail: _______________
Instant Messenger: _______________
Chat Rooms: ________________
102
Social Networking Websites: _________________
□ Decline to Answer
5) Is there a parent/guardian, friend, teacher/counselor, sibling, or someone else
usually present in the same room while you are using a computer? Check one
of the following:
□ Yes
□ No
□ Decline to Answer
6) Thinking of the computer you use most often, does it have any restrictions on
the amount of time you can spend online or prevent you from viewing
websites with adult content, etc.? Check one of the following:
□ Yes
□ No
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ Decline to Answer
7) Please indicate if you have an account for any of the following social
networking websites. Check all that apply.
□ Facebook
□ MySpace
□ Friendster
□ Twitter
103
□ Xanga
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ None
□ Decline to Answer
8) If applicable, please indicate what information is posted on your social
networking website. Check all that apply.
□ Age (i.e., 21 years old)
□ Gender (i.e., male, female, etc.)
□ Additional descriptive characteristics (i.e., eye color, hair color, etc.)
□ Hobbies (i.e., shopping, dancing, working out, etc.)
□ Picture(s) of self
□ Telephone number (i.e., cell phone number, home phone number, etc.)
□ Home location (i.e., address)
□ Extracurricular activities (i.e., playing for the school baseball team)
□ Goals/aspirations (i.e., becoming a doctor, losing weight, etc.)
□ Distress problems (i.e., death in the family, etc.)
□ Relationship status (i.e., single, married, etc.)
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ None
□ Decline to Answer
104
9) If applicable, is your social networking website page privatized or require
your permission for others to view it? Check one of the following:
□ Yes
□ No
□ Decline to Answer
10) How many times have you ever been contacted by an unknown person
through a social networking website? Please specify by filling in the space
provided.
________________
□ Decline to Answer
11) On any/all of your social networking websites, approximately how many
times has a person unknown to you requested your permission to view your
profile/ website? Please specify by filling in the space provided.
________________
□ Decline to Answer
12) Of those times when someone unknown to you requested your permission,
how many times did you give them permission? Check one of the following:
□ None
□ A few
□ Some
□ Most
105
□ All
□ Decline to Answer
13) Have you conversed with an unknown person at a social networking website?
Check one of the following:
□ Yes
□ No
□ Decline to Answer
14) Have you ever given personal information beyond what is accessible on your
website to an unknown person? If “yes”, see below and check all that apply.
□ Age (i.e., 21 years old)
□ Gender (i.e., male, female, etc.)
□ Additional descriptive characteristics (i.e., eye color, hair color, etc.)
□ Hobbies (i.e., shopping, dancing, working out, etc.)
□ Picture(s) of self
□ Telephone number (i.e., cell phone number, home phone number, etc.)
□ Home location (i.e., address)
□ Extracurricular activities (i.e., playing for the school baseball team)
□ Goals/aspirations (i.e., becoming a doctor, losing weight, etc.)
□ Distress problems (i.e., death in the family, etc.)
□ Relationship status (i.e., single, married, etc.)
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
106
□ No
□ Decline to Answer
15) Do you engage in any of the activities mentioned above using a mobile device
such as a smart phone? Check one of the following:
□ Yes
□ No
□ Decline to Answer
16) In general, how safe do you feel engaging with unknown persons? On a scale
from 1 (very unsafe) to 10 (very safe), please circle a spot on the continuum
provided below.
□ Decline to Answer
1--------2--------3--------4--------5--------6--------7--------8--------9--------10
Very Unsafe
Safe
Very Safe
17) If you circled a spot on the continuum to question #16, please explain your
answer as to why you may feel safe or unsafe. Please fill in the blank spaces
provided unless you decline to answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
107
18) What is your gender? Check one of the following:
□ Male
□ Female
□ Decline to Answer
19) What is your age as of your last birthday? Please fill in the blank space
provided unless you decline to answer.
_____________________ Years
20) What ethnicity/race would you most identify yourself as? Check one of the
following:
□ American Indian
□ Asian
□ Black
□ Hispanic
□ White
□ Pacific Islander
□ Multiracial
□ Other (specify)
_________________________________________________________
□ Decline to Answer
21) Please indicate your marital status. Check one of the following:
□ Married
□ Divorced
108
□ Separated (Can be single, previously married, but not yet divorced)
□ Widowed
□ Single (Never-married)
□ Domestic partner
□ Decline to Answer
Thank you for your participation.
109
APPENDIX B
Script Used Prior to Questionnaire Distribution
Hello students, today you are asked to participate in a voluntary study which will
be administered by me, Brandon Jaimes, in an attempt to further understand
undergraduate criminal justice student computer use, Internet use, and social networking
website use. This study has been created to complete a thesis in partial requirement to
obtain a masters degree in criminal justice here at the University. You have all been
selected as a possible participant in this study through random sampling of scheduled
class meetings.
Keep in mind the following: First, if you decide to participate, you may quit the
survey at anytime without prejudice. Second, participation is completely voluntary, and
you, as well as your responses, will remain completely anonymous. Third, results from
the research will be reported with no identifiers. Fourth, there will be no compensation
for participating in the survey. Remember, if any of the questions make you
uncomfortable, you may refuse to answer them.
I will ask for a volunteer from the class to distribute the questionnaire while I
remain outside. This volunteer will then collect the completed questionnaires, put them in
an envelope, seal the envelope, and then hand the envelope to me outside the door.
Remember, your return of this questionnaire is implied consent. Also, if you have already
participated in this survey at a previous time, please, do not participate again. If you may
have any questions regarding this study, you may contact either professor Tim Croisdale
110
at croisdale@csus.edu or me, at bj277@saclink.csus.edu. Thank you for considering
participation.
111
APPENDIX C
Use of E-mail Services Over 24-hour Period
Frequency of E-mail Use
Values (Hours)
Percentage
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 or more
Declined
11.8%
28.8%
19.1%
8.7%
5.5%
9.4%
15.3%
1.4%
N
34
83
55
25
16
27
44
4
112
APPENDIX D
Use of Instant Messenger Services Over 24-hour Period
Frequency of Instant Messenger Use
Values (Hours)
Percentage
0
70.1%
1
16.3%
2
3.1%
3
3.1%
4
0.7%
5
1.0%
6 or more
4.2%
Declined
1.4%
N
202
47
9
9
2
3
12
4
113
APPENDIX E
Use of Chat-room Services Over 24-hour Period
Frequency of Chat-room Use
Values (Hours)
Percentage
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 or more
Declined
94.0%
2.8%
0.7%
0.7%
0.3%
0.30%
1.40%
N
270
8
2
2
1
1
4
114
APPENDIX F
Use of Social Networking Website Services Over 24-hour Period
Frequency of Social Networking Website Use
Values (Hours)
Percentage
N
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 or more
Declined
20.8%
19.8%
15.6%
11.8%
4.2%
9.4%
16.7%
1.4%
60
57
45
34
12
27
48
4
115
APPENDIX G
Privatization of Social Networking Websites and Student’s Perception of Safety
Privatization of SNW and Perception of Safety Crosstabulation
Privatized Social Networking Website
No
Yes
N/A
Declined
Total
Level
Unsafe
N
7
54
0
5
66
of
%
17.5%
24.2%
0.0%
23.8%
22.9%
Safety
2
N
2
22
2
3
29
%
5.0%
9.9%
50.0%
14.3%
10.1%
3
N
6
40
2
6
54
%
15.0%
17.9%
50.0%
28.6%
18.8%
4
N
3
19
0
2
24
%
7.5%
8.5%
0.0%
9.5%
8.3%
5
N
9
29
0
2
40
%
22.5%
13.0%
0.0%
9.5%
13.9%
6
N
1
14
0
1
16
%
2.5%
6.3%
0.0%
4.8%
5.6%
7
N
1
11
0
0
12
%
2.5%
4.9%
0.0%
0.0%
4.2%
8
N
4
9
0
0
13
%
10.0%
4.0%
0.0%
0.0%
4.5%
9
N
2
8
0
0
10
%
5.0%
3.6%
0.0%
0.0%
3.5%
Safe
N
3
6
0
0
9
%
7.5%
2.7%
0.0%
0.0%
3.1%
Declined N
2
11
0
2
15
%
5.0%
4.9%
0.0%
9.5%
5.2%
Total
N
40
223
4
21
288
% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
116
APPENDIX H
Collapsed Data for Subjects Contacted by Unknown Persons and Their Perception of
Safety
Collapsed Data for Those Contacted and Perception of Safety Crosstabulation
Collapsed Data for Contacted
0-100
101-200
901-1000
Total
Level
of
Safety
Unsafe
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Safe
Declined
Total
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
66
23.2%
29
10.2%
33
18.6%
23
8.1%
40
14.0%
16
5.6%
12
4.2%
13
4.6%
10
3.5%
8
2.8%
15
5.3%
285
100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
50.0%
1
50.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
100.0%
0
0.0%
1
100.0%
66
22.9%
29
10.1%
54
18.8%
24
8.3%
40
13.9%
16
5.6%
12
4.2%
13
4.5%
10
3.5%
9
3.1%
15
5.2%
288
100.0%
117
APPENDIX I
Collapsed Data for Subjects who were Requested Permission to View their Social
Networking Website
Collapsed Data for Requested Permission Crosstabulation
Collapsed Data for Requested Permission
9010-100
101-200 201-300 1000
Total
Level
Unsafe
N
6
0
0
0
66
of
%
23.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
22.9%
Safety
2
N
29
0
0
0
29
%
10.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
10.1%
3
N
54
0
0
0
54
%
18.9%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
18.8%
4
N
23
1
0
0
24
%
8.1%
100.0%
0.0%
0.0%
8.3%
5
N
40
0
0
0
40
%
14.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
13.9%
6
N
16
0
0
0
16
%
5.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
5.6%
7
N
12
0
0
0
12
%
4.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
4.2%
8
N
13
0
0
0
13
%
4.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
4.5%
9
N
10
0
0
0
10
%
3.5%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
3.5%
Safe
N
7
0
1
1
9
%
2.5%
0.0%
100.0% 100.0%
3.1%
Declined N
15
0
0
0
15
%
5.3%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
5.2%
Total
N
285
1
1
1
288
% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
118
APPENDIX J
Subjects who were Asked Permission by Unknown Persons to View Their Private Social
Networking Website and Their Perception of Safety
Permission to View Privatized SNW and Perception of Safety Crosstabulation
Permission to View Privatized Social Networking Website
None A Few Some Most All N/A Declined
Level
Total
Unsafe
N
56
3
0
0
0
0
7
66
of
2
N
22
2
0
0
0
2
3
29
Safety
3
N
39
9
1
0
0
0
5
54
4
N
14
9
0
0
0
0
1
24
5
N
23
8
2
1
1
0
5
40
6
N
8
5
1
1
0
0
1
16
7
N
3
6
3
0
0
0
0
12
8
N
10
2
0
0
0
0
1
13
9
N
5
2
2
1
0
0
0
10
Safe
N
2
2
1
2
2
0
0
9
Declined
N
9
2
1
0
0
0
3
15
N
191
50
11
5
3
2
26
288
Total
119
APPENDIX K
Subjects who Conversed with Unknown Persons and Their Perception of Safety
Conversed with Unknown Person and Perception of Safety Crosstabulation
Conversed
No
Yes
N/A
Declined Total
Level
Unsafe
N
58
5
0
3
66
of
%
31.7%
5.7%
0.0%
18.8%
22.9%
Safety
2
N
21
6
1
1
29
%
11.5%
6.8%
100.0%
6.3%
10.1%
3
N
36
16
0
2
54
%
19.7%
18.2%
0.0%
12.5%
18.8%
4
N
13
10
0
1
24
%
7.1%
11.4%
0.0%
6.3%
8.3%
5
N
21
15
0
4
40
%
11.5%
17.0%
0.0%
25.0%
13.9%
6
N
7
8
0
1
16
%
3.8%
9.1%
0.0%
6.3%
5.6%
7
N
5
7
0
0
12
%
2.7%
8.0%
0.0%
0.0%
4.2%
8
N
6
7
0
0
13
%
3.3%
8.0%
0.0%
0.0%
4.5%
9
N
5
5
0
0
10
%
2.7%
5.7%
0.0%
0.0%
3.5%
Safe
N
4
5
0
0
9
%
2.2%
5.7%
0.0%
0.0%
3.1%
Declined N
7
4
0
4
15
%
3.8%
4.5%
0.0%
25.0%
5.2%
Total
N
183
88
1
16
288
% 100.0% 100.0%
100.0%
100.0% 100.0%
120
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