Motivation and
Emotion
Motivation
What motivates you? What do others use
to try to motivate you? Do those things
work?
• Motivation = a need or desire that
energizes and directs behavior
•
Big question: Why do people do what they
do?
Instinct Theory
 People/animals
do what they do because
it is what they do naturally
 Idea
became popular with Darwin’s
theory of evolution
 Instincts
are found throughout a species
and are unlearned
Examples
 Does
of human instincts?
not explain behavior, just labels it
Drive-Reduction Theory
 Physiological
needs cause an aroused
psychological state (drive) that organisms
want to reduce
Need - water
Drive - thirst
Drive-reducing
behavior – drinking
water
Drive-Reduction Theory cont.
 Goal
of drive-reduction =
homeostasis, or internal equilibrium
 Example: When we are hungry, we
eat, when we are full, we stop eating
 Drives
push us to do a behavior
Arousal Theory
 Goal
= optimum level of arousal
 Different
level for different people
(introverts, extroverts, thrill-seekers, autistic)
 When
we are bored, we prefer to increase
stimulation by doing something
 Too
much stimulation is stressful and we try
to reduce it
Incentive Theory
 Incentives
can be positive or negative
(carrot or stick)
 Highly
dependent on culture, personal
preference, and learning history
Does
bean curd motivate or disgust
you? Fried pickles?
Humanistic Theory
 Abraham
hierarchy
Maslow ranked needs in a
 Thought
some needs must be satisfied
before you can worry about the next level
 Generally
true across cultures, although
some individuals may intentionally skip
levels
1. Physiological needs
 Hunger
 Thirst
 Warmth
 Sleep
2. Safety Needs
Need to feel safe from
•
Physical harm
•
Embarrassment
•
Unpredictable events
3. Belongingness and Love Needs
 To
love and be
loved
 Be
accepted and
belong to a group
 Avoid
loneliness
and separation
4. Esteem Needs
 Self-esteem
 Achievement
 Competence
 Independence
 Recognition
and
respect from others
5. Self-Actualization Needs
 Live
up to our full
potential
 Contribute to the
world
 Uniqueness
 Job satisfaction
6. Self-Transcendence Needs
 Find
meaning,
purpose, and
identity beyond
the self
 Not part of
original hierarcy
Maslow’s hierarchy cont.
 Forgot
cognitive needs
Need
to know
Need
to understand
 It’s
your first semester of college and you have to
choose between studying for a test and rushing a
sorority/fraternity. What would Maslow predict
you would do? Why?
 You
are stranded in the wilderness and haven’t
eaten since yesterday when you find an apple
tree surrounded by signs that bears frequent this
area. You know you should avoid the bears but
you decide to stay and eat some apples anyway.
How would Maslow explain your behavior?
Hunger, Eating Disorders, and
Obesity
“
Should the government
be able to tax junk food?
Should junk food be taken out of
schools?
”
Physiological Basis of Hunger

A decrease in glucose (blood sugar) causes
brain to secret hunger hormones

Glucose is processed by insulin (hormone)

Activity in lateral hypothalamus (LH – Large
Hunger) causes hunger by producing hormone
orexin

Activity in ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH –
Very Minute Hunger) decreases hunger
Physiological Basis of Hunger

Empty stomachs secret ghrelin, a hormone that
causes hunger

Obestatin, PPY, and leptin all decrease hunger,
but none have successfully been turned into
drugs yet

Hormones may control the body’s set point
(body’s natural preferred weight, influenced by
genetics and available food)
Psychology of Hunger
 Memory
of time passing influences hunger
Amnesiacs
them
will eat 3 lunches if you offer
 Food
affects brain chemistry and
therefore mood
Ex:
carbs help produce serotonin, which
calms people down when stressed
Adaptive Taste Preferences

All humans have a preference for sweet and
salty foods

Other taste preferences are developed by
learned aversions and by culture

Many cultures have taboo foods that would
either be dangerous or too costly to eat
Unit Bias
 Studies
consistently find that people eat
more with larger serving sizes
 Many
people eat larger portions of foods
labled “low-fat” even though they enjoy
them less
Eating Disorders
 Show
psychological impact on eating
habits because they are not biologically
healthy/natural
 Often stem from warped perceptions,
societal pressure, and/or motivation for
acceptance/esteem
 Affect about 3.6% of Americans at some
point in their lives
Anorexia nervosa
 75%
of affected people are female (most
are adolescents)
 People
are dramatically underweight but
still feel fat, fear weight gain, and obsess
over weight
 50%
follow a binge-purge-depression
cycle
Bulimia nervosa
 Mostly
affects women 16-25
 Overeating
followed by purging (vomiting,
laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise)
 Weight
range
 Often
fluctuates around/above normal
accompanied by
depression/anxiety
Binge-eating disorder

Individuals binge eat, but do not purge
Influences on Eating Disorders

Twins are more likely to both have a disorder if they
are identical (some genetic influence)

Anorexia sufferers are often perfectionists and come
from competitive, high-achieving families

Bulimia sufferers often come from families with high
instances of childhood obesity and negative selfimages

Idealization of thinness (girls) or muscularity (boys)
 Eating
disorders are often about issues of
control and self-esteem
 Controlling
eating habits/weight may be
seen as a way to control other aspects of
life, such as athletic performance or social
acceptance
Effects of Obesity
 Has
significant health risks
 Slender
people are perceived as more
likable, more trustworthy, and more
friendly
 Discrimination
against obese people
affects women more strongly than men
Physiology of Obesity

Fat cells (adipose tissue) store fat, and if they get
too full they divide

Dieting can shrink fat cells but not decrease their
number

Dieting can slow metabolism (body uses less
energy)

These factors make it more difficult to keep off
weight that is lost
Causes of Obesity
 Genetics
 Social
influence – people tend to gain
weight along with their friends
 Sleep
loss - causes hormonal imbalance
that promotes overeating
 Food
consumption and activity levels –
energy expenditure should match intake
Weight Loss Tips

Lose weight slowly – most crash dieters rebound
quickly

Fill up with healthy foods

Eat breakfast to wake up your metabolism

Minimize temptation by avoiding junk food as
much as possible

Eat more slowly

Eat off of smaller plates
“
It is better to accept
oneself as a bit heavy than
to diet and binge and feel
continually out of control
and guilty.
”
Belonging
Adaptive Value
 Being
part of a
group improves
survival chances

People often rank relationships as the most
important contributor to their happiness

People sometimes feel that even
unhealthy relationships may be better than
no relationship at all
Ostracism
 Being
excluded from social situations
stimulates the same brain areas as
physical pain
 Excluded
people are more likely to
underperform on tests and to show
aggression to those who excluded them
Achievement Motivation
APPENDIX B
Achievement Motivation
 Desire
for accomplishments, mastering
skills/ideas, and for quickly reaching a high
standard
 Studied
by industrial-organizational (I/O)
psychologists
 Either
 Level
intrinsic or extrinsic
of achievement motivation is a
better predictor of success than
intelligence (10 year rule)
Factors that influence
achievement motivation
 Job
satisfaction?
 Feeling
valued, useful, respected, and
well-treated at work
 Whether
or not the task is something you
feel good at
 Having
specific goals
Beliefs on Achievement Motivation
Theory X


Workers are lazy and
extrinsically motivated
by money.
They should be given
simple tasks, closely
monitored, and given
incentives to do more.
Theory Y

Workers are
intrinsically motivated.

They should be
reinforced for doing
well, have good
relationships with coworkers, and have
opportunities to fulfill
their potential.
Theories of Emotion
Emotions have 3 components
 1.
physiological arousal (ex. Pounding
heart, sweaty hands)
 2.
expressive behaviors (ex. Smiling,
pacing, fidgeting)
 3.
consciously experienced thoughts and
feelings
 Big
question: Which of these happens first?
James-Lange Theory
 William
James and Carl Lange suggested
this order:
 1.
physiological response
 2.
notice the physiological response
(awareness)
 3.
experienced emotion (put a cognitive
label on it)
 Example:
While crossing the street without
paying attention, you almost get hit by a
car. Your heart races and you feel shaky.
As you realized what just happened, you
realize you are afraid.
Evidence in Favor of James-Lange

People paralyzed from the neck down report
diminished emotional intensity except for
emotional symptoms experienced above the
neck (crying, choking up, etc.)
Cannon-Bard Theory

Said that James-Lange was wrong because
 Physiological
emotions
response are very similar across
 Physiological
responses take too long to be
the cause of emotions

They said that physiological arousal and
emotional awareness happen separately and at
the same time
 Signal
is routed to cortex and sympathetic
nervous system simultaneously
 Example:
You almost get hit by a car.
Your heart starts pounding and you feel
afraid at the same time.
Evidence in Favor of Cannon- Bard
 Lie
detectors (which only measure
physical symptoms) are not fool-proof,
suggesting cognitive awareness can
influence physiological responses
 Our
interpretation of situations influences
our emotional reaction
Schachter (and Singer) Two-Factor
Theory
 Two
factors are 1) physiological arousal
and 2) a cognitive label
 Both
are necessary to experience emotion
 Example:
You almost get hit by a car. You
know this is a scary situation and your
heart is pounding. You therefore feel
afraid.
Figure 8B.1 Theories of emotion
© 2011 by Worth Publishers
Physiology of Emotions

Most emotional states have similar effects on
heart rate, breathing, and perspiration

Different emotions use different facial muscles
and brain circuits

Negative emotions tend to be experienced in
the right hemisphere and positive emotions
more in the left

Most emotions activate the frontal cortex, fear
and anger also use the amygdala
Cognition and Emotion

Inciting a physiological response by exercising
causes people to feel strong emotions, but the
emotion they experience depends on how they
cognitively interpret a situation – cognition can
define emotion

Subconscious stimuli can affect our emotional
responses, indicating simple emotions can occur
without cognition

More complex emotions such as guilt or love are
influenced by memory, experience, and
interpretation (all cognitive)
Stress
Stress
 Stress
is the process of coping with
challenges
 Short-lived
stress can arouse people to
conquer challenges
 Long-term
stress weakens immune system
and cause DNA loss (shortened telomeres)
similar to aging
Yerks-Dodson Law
 On
simple, welllearned tasks,
higher levels of
stress improve
performance
 On
difficult tasks, a
low-to-moderate
amount of stress
yields the highest
performance
What causes stress?

Catastrophes
 Natural

disasters, terrorist attack
Life changes
 Marriage,
baby, leaving home, job loss
 Experiencing
multiple events in a short time
compounds the effects

Daily hassles
 Waiting
 Seem
in line, traffic, argument with friend
small but add up and affect blood pressure
Personality And Stress

Competitive, anger-prone Type A people
experience stress more strongly and may cause
themselves more stress

They are more prone to heart attacks than laidback Type B

Women are more likely to cope with “tend-andbefriend” strategy
General Adaptation Syndrome
 Phase
1: Alarm
 Body
prepares for fight-or-flight; may
include temporary state of shock
 Phase
2: Resistance
 State
 Phase
 If
of arousal continues
3: Exhaustion
stress lasts too long, your body’s resources
are depleted and you are more vulnerable
to illness/collapse/death
Expressing Emotion
 Facial
expressions are
universal
 Hand
gestures and other
nonverbal cues are not