CH 511 – The History
of Christianity 2
Late Medieval Age
Slides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez
The Medieval
Sacramental System
Transubstantiation
• Defined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215
• CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance
of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body
and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of
the bread and wine remaining
Prelude to
Reformation in the
Western Church
Avignon Papacy
Avignon Papacy – why
important?
• Important historical factor which will help set the stage for the
Reformation in the 16th century
• Raised issues of dogmatic and ethical reform – Who has
ultimate authority over the church? (Pope, Councils,
Monarchs?)
• Rise of nationalism:
• The papacy more and more recognized as a temporal realm; and
resented because of it
• The age-old battle between secular and religious authority and
interests
• Conflict between dynasties and kingdoms gives rise to emerging
national identities (Hundred Years War between England and
France); Feudalism on the wane
• The papacy’s involvement in these conflicts will only exacerbate
matters
Celestine V and
Boniface VIII
Conflict of ideals
• Celestine V (r. 1294) aspired to reform the church through
Franciscan simplicity; considered one of the humblest men to
ever occupy the throne of St. Peter; he resigned the papacy
after serving only five months and eight days
• Boniface VIII (1294-1303) had Celestine imprisoned and may
have had Celestine murdered
• Not many were happy with Boniface’s election
• The powerful Colonna family in Italy who had their own designs
on the papacy
• The extreme Franciscans (the “Fraticelli”)
• Many saw Celestine’s election as a fulfillment of a prophecy
announced by Joachim of Fiore that the “Age of the Spirit” had
begun; Thus many did not accept his abdication
Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
• The first part of his reign was successful
•
•
•
•
Dealt with the powerful Colonna family
Dealt with a rebellion in Germany
Held off the war between England and France
Declared a Year of Jubilee in 1303, granting a plenary indulgence
to anyone who visited the tomb of St. Peter
• Relations between Boniface and Philip of France grew tense
• Issued a the bull Unam Sanctum which asserted papal claims to
universal power, both ecclesiastical and political
• After various mutual recriminations, Boniface attempted to
excommunicate Philip in September 1303
• Boniface was kidnapped by his enemies (Sciarra Colonna and
William Nogaret), on the eve of the excommunication,
demanding his resignation
“The Slap of Anagni”
• Boniface responded to the demand to resign by saying that he
would “sooner die”
• This response elicited a famous slap
• Boniface was then beaten badly, humiliated and nearly
executed; locals managed to secure his release after three
days: He died in October 1303 of kidney stones
In the Aftermath of Anagni
• The next pope, Benedict XI, restored the fortunes of many of
Boniface’s enemies, but refused to try the former pope
posthumously; died after brief pontificate (perhaps poisoned)
• The “pro-French” party obtained an agreement from the
cardinals on the election of Clement V
• Clement never visited Rome even once; moved the papal curia to
Avignon, France in 1309
• Clement agreed to try Boniface posthumously; though Boniface
was exonerated
• Clement forgave Nogaret and his companions and commended
Philip of France
• Under Clement, the Templars were tried and condemned
The first Avignon Pope: Clement V
(1305-1314)
The “Babylonian Captivity” of the
Church
• Clement V moved the papal curia to Avignon in 1309
• Clement had named twenty-four cardinals, all but one was
French, and several were his relatives
• For nearly seventy years the popes would generally remain in
Avignon, and willingly serve as the tools of French policy
Avignon Popes
• John XIII (1316-1334) – Elected at 72 and ruled for 18 years!
• Benedict XII (1334-1342) – Rebuilt and fortified the great
papal palace in Avignon; alienated England and Germany
during the 100 Years War
• Clement VI (1342-1352) – Tried to mediate the 100 Years War;
many saw the Black Plague as divine punishment for the
papacy’s absence from Rome
• Innocent VI (1352-1362) – Attempted to return to Rome, but
died before accomplishing it
• Urban V (1362-1370) – Reforming pope; returned to Rome in
1365; the Romans received him with joy, but in the long run
he failed to win their loyalty, so he returned to Avignon
• Gregory XI (1370-1378) – Made a cardinal by his uncle,
Clement VI when seventeen
The Hundred Years War
• Series of conflicts between 1337 and 1453 between England
and France over control of the French throne
• Result of dynastic disagreements dating back to William the
Conqueror (1066)
Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380)
Catherine of Sienna
• Joined the “Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic” (A tertiary
order of the Dominicans) as a young girl
• Two years later had a vision in which Jesus joined her in
mystical marriage and ordered her to serve others
• Became a famous teacher of mysticism, gathering around her
followers (both men and women), some of whom were more
educated than she; her Dominican followers kept her well
versed in theological questions so that she could avoid heresy
• In 1370, she had a vision in which she claimed that her
mission was to restore the papacy to Rome; she set out on a
pilgrimage to bring about peaceful resolution of many of
Italy’s wars and feuds
• Finally, in 1377, Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the
Babylonian Captivity; Catherine died three years later
The Effects of the Avignon
Papacy
• Papacy had become a tool of French policies; other nations
began to view the papacy as a competing “foreign power”
• As a result, nationalism was on the rise in Europe; resentment
towards the papacy
• Revenues from unfilled vacancies poured into Avignon,
France; no motivation to fill vacant posts or to move back to
Rome
• Simony once again became prevalent in the church; to this
abuse was added the abuses of pluralism (the holding of more
than one benefice or post), absenteeism, and nepotism
The Great Western
Schism
Causes of the Great Schism
• Gregory XI had actually considered returning to Avignon as
conditions in Rome proved to be less than ideal; he died
before he had the chance
• The people of Rome feared that the majority of French
cardinals would elect someone who would return the papacy
to Avignon
• Fearing that the French cardinals were planning to escape
Italy, a mob invaded the place where the conclave met and
demanded the election of a Roman or at least an Italian
• Under duress, the cardinals elected the archbishop of Bari, an
Italian, who took the name Urban VI; his coronation was one
of great pomp in which all the cardinals, both French and
Italian, participated
Urban VI (13781389)
The inflammatory reforming actions
of Urban VI
• In an effort to curb absenteeism, Urban declared all bishops
who formed part of his court (i.e. not in their dioceses) to be
“traitors to Christ”
• He denounced the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and
declared that those who received any gifts whatsoever were
guilty of simony
• In an effort to curb French influence, he appointed a vast
number of Italian cardinals
• Meanwhile, he appointed many of his relatives to positions of
importance, thereby opening him up to the charge of
nepotism
• Many of his cardinals charged that Urban had gone mad, and
began to form an opposition party against him
The plot against Urban
• Both French and Italian cardinals joined the opposition against
Urban, fled Rome and gathered in Anagni
• There they declared that they had elected Urban under
coercion and thus his election was not valid
• They then proceeded to elect a new pope (the Italians present
abstained, but did not protest), who took the name of
Clement VII
• Thus an unprecedented situation developed; for the first time
there were two popes elected by the same cardinals
• The new pope took up arms against Urban and attacked
Rome; he was repulsed and resided in Avignon
• All of western Europe would now have to take sides
Divided Europe
Avignon Papacy
• France
• Scotland
• Castile & Aragon (at first
supporters of Urban)
• A number of German
nobles who had reason
to oppose the emperor
Roman Papacy
•
•
•
•
•
•
England
Scandinavia
Flanders
Hungary
Poland
Holy Roman Empire
(Germany)
Divided Europe
• Portugal changed allegiances repeatedly
• In Italy, each city and each ruler followed its own course and
changed allegiances as political factors dictated
• The Kingdom of Naples sided with Avignon (for the most part)
• Holy Roman Empire was nominally on the side of Rome,
though local loyalties varied
Urban’s Mess
• Catherine of Sienna devoted herself to Urban’s cause before
her death; but Urban did not make things easy
• Urban decided to created a principality for his nephew, and
thus became embroiled in a series of senseless wars; when
some of his cardinals suggested he change this policy, Urban
had them arrested and they died of suspicious means
• Urban died in 1389, and his cardinals elected Boniface IX
• By taking the name Boniface, the new pope indicated that he
would follow the anti-French policies of the earlier Boniface
Two Lines of Popes
• The Great Schism went beyond the election of two competing
popes to the election of their successors, and thus was
created two competing lines of popes
• The Great Schism encouraged ecclesiastical abuses, especially
that of simony as the competing popes were always in need of
funds
Papal Claimants during the Great
Schism (1378-1417)
Avignon Line (Anti-Popes)
• Clement VII (1378-1394)
• Benedict XIII (1394-1423)
• Abdicated
Three others not recognized by
any nation:
Clement VIII
Benedict XIV (Bernard Garnier)
Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier)
Roman Popes
•
•
•
•
•
•
Urban VI (1378-1389)
Boniface IX (1389-1404)
Innocent VII (1404-1406)
Gregory XII (1406-1415)
Interregnum (1415-1417)
Martin V (1417-1431)
Proposal of the University of Paris
(1394)
Three possible solutions to the Great Schism:
1. Both Popes resign, and a conclave consisting of both sets of
cardinals proceed with the election of a new one
2. Question be settled by negotiation and arbitration
3. A General Council be called to decide the matter
Charles VI of France attempts
to intervene…
• When Clement VII of Avignon died, Charles VI of France asked the
Avignon cardinals not to elect a new one, hoping that he could
convince the Pope of Rome to abdicate
• The Avignon cardinals, feeling that their case could be weakened,
went ahead an elected Benedict XIII anyway
• Charles responded by besieging Avignon, but had to abandon the
siege due to changing political fortunes
• Meanwhile, the Roman popes began a series of maneuvers to make
it appear that they wanted to end the schism
• Both sides, however, refused to negotiate, which ended up
alienating many of the cardinals on both sides
• The Roman cardinals were the first to break with their pope begin
negotiations with the Avignon Party; meanwhile France withdrew
her support for Benedict
• The stage was set for the “Conciliar Movement”
Conciliarism
The Call for a General Council
• Not since the days of Constantine did the church place so
much of hope on the convening of a universal council to settle
the decades long Babylonian Captivity
• As it began to be articulated in western theology, conciliar
theory (or conciliarism) held that a universal council,
representing the entire church, had more authority than the
pope
• The question was: who had the authority to call a council of
the whole church? In the Western Church, councils were
summoned by popes; in the Eastern Church, councils had
been summoned by emperors
• The difficulty was solved when cardinals of both parties issued
a joint call to a great council to be held in Pisa in 1409
Council of Pisa (1409)
• When the council gathered in Pisa, it had the support of both
colleges of cardinals and well as most of the courts of Europe
– a very hopeful sign that was soon to be dashed
• Rather than try to determine who was the rightful pope, the
council declared that both were unworthy, and thus both were
deposed
• The council then went on to deal with the issues of simony
and other abuses
• Meanwhile, the cardinals elected another pope who took the
name Alexander V
• Convinced that they had ended the schism, the council
adjourned
And then there were three…
• Most of Europe accepted the decisions of Pisa and the new
pope, Alexander V
• However, both rival Popes (Rome and Avignon) refused to
accept the decisions of the council of Pisa, and both had
enough support to insist on their claims
• Alexander died less than a year after his election; the cardinals
then proceeded to elect his successor, John XXIII
Three Papacies
• Benedict XIII of Avignon (1394-1423)
• Gregory XII of Rome (1406-1415)
• Pisan Popes: Alexander V (1409-1410) & John XIII (1410-1415)
Officially, the Roman Catholic Church only recognizes the
legitimacy of the Roman line; the Avignon and Pisan popes are
considered “antipopes”
The Intervention of Sigismund of
Germany
• John XIII found himself forced to flee Italy and seek asylum
from Emperor Sigismund of Germany, who at the time was the
most powerful monarch of Europe
• Sigismund decided that it was time for another council to
decide the issue once and for all, and required of John XXIII his
agreement on the issue as a condition of asylum
• John XXIII was to convene the council, which would gather in
Constance in 1414
Council of Constance (1413-18)
finally settles the matter…
• By convening the council, John XXIII assumed that those assembled
would support his claim to the papal throne; he was mistaken
• The council was of a reformist mindset, and thus called for the
resignation of all three claimants
• In 1415, Gregory XII, the Roman pope, resigned as promised; John
also resigned, then fled, presuming that the authority of the council
would then be compromised
• John was a fugitive for months, but eventually captured, brought
back to Constance and deposed for heresy; he was then condemned
to prison for the rest of his life, but later released and made a
cardinal by Martin V
• After Gregory’s death (1417), the council elected Martin V
• Benedict XIII refused to resign and took refuge in a fortress where he
continued to claim his legitimacy; no one paid much attention to
him; he died in 1423
• Benedict had up to three successors, though since their elections
were dubious, he is considered the last of the Avignon line.
Martin V (14171431)
The Three Reforming Councils
• The Council of Constance (1414) – attempted to reform the
church, legislate against abuses, and rid the church of heretics;
John Huss was condemned; Also decreed that councils should
meet every ten years or so to continue the work of
reformation
• The Council of Basel (1431) – Called by Martin V, but dissolved
by his successor, Eugene IV; it refused to adjourn and ended
up electing an antipope (Felix V – gave up claim in 1449)
• The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439) – Eugene decreed the
transfer of the Council of Basel to Ferrara (eventually to
Florence); there the council attempted a formula of reunion
between East and West as a condition for western aid to
Constantinople
Waldensians
Peter Waldo (c.
1140-1218)
Peter Waldo
• Peter Waldo (more accurately Valdes), a wealthy merchant of Lyons; the
name “Peter” was added by his followers of the late 14th century to link
Waldo to the first apostle
• Impressed by a song about St. Alexis sung by a traveling minstrel, Waldo
asked a master of theology “the best way to God.” The theologian
quoted him, “If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give
to the poor, and you will have treasure in heave; and come, follow me”
(Matt 19:21)
• Selling all that he had, and making provision for his wife and endowing
his daughters for life, he literally put this counsel into practice
• He procured vernacular translations of scripture passages and the
fathers and walked the streets preaching a life of repentance for the
forgiveness of sins
• Many thought he was mad, but he gained a following for his vita
apostolica
• He soon aroused the suspicion and hostility of the archbishop and clergy
of Lyons; Canon law restricted preaching to clergy
Waldensians
• Unlike other medieval heresies (e.g. the Cathars), the Waldensians
originated in no conscious hostility to the church
• Waldo and his followers appealed to the Third Lateran Council, who
laughed at them as ignorant laymen but did not pronounce them
heretics
• Pope Alexander III applauded their devotion to poverty but denied
them the right to preach without first securing permission from their
bishop
• At first they obeyed the restriction, but when permission was not
granted they began to interpret the refusal of their right to preach
as the word of man over against that of God
• They were excommunicated in 1182 and expelled from Lyons
• The “Poor of Lyons” made their way to NE France and into Germany,
and southward into Lombardy
• Condemned along with the Cathars in 1184 at the Council of Verona
by Pope Lucius III
Foreshadow of the Protestant
Reformation?
• Waldensian beliefs:
• The Bible, particularly the New Testament, was the sole rule of
belief and life; every prescription must be followed to the letter
• Preachers went out “two by two” in simple woolen robes,
barefooted or wearing sandals cut in a special pattern
• Preached repentance unto life; rejected all oaths and shedding of
blood
• Renounced marriage and all worldly goods; maintained
themselves through contributions of their sympathizers
(“friends”, “believers”)
• Did not consider episcopal ordination necessary; woman as well
as men were granted the right to preach
• Lay celebration of the Lord’s Supper was permitted in regions
where the sacrament was not readily available from a Catholic
priest
The Waning of the
Medieval Synthesis
The Renaissance
Proto-Reformers
Two Types of Reform
• One that addressed mainly moral and pastoral issues, such as
simony and absenteeism (Conciliar Movement)
• One that also sought to reform not only the life, but also the
doctrines of the Church
• John Wycliffe – 1328-1384
• John Huss (Jan Hus) – 1369-1415
John Wycliffe
(Wyclif), 1328-1384
Wycliffe’s Resume
• Little is known of his early life
• Spent most of his career in Oxford, England; famous for his
erudition and logic; not very good humored
• In 1371, he left the university to serve the English Crown, first
as a diplomat then as a polemicist
• This was during the time of the Avignon papacy, so Wycliffe’s
arguments on the nature and limits of lordship and dominion
were well received by the English authorities
Wycliffe’s Position on Legitimate Dominion
• All legitimate dominion comes from God
• Dominion is to be characterized by the example of Christ, who came
to serve, not to be served
• Any dominion exercised for the profit of the ruler and not for the
good of the governed (commonwealth) is not true dominion, but
rather usurpation
• The same is true of dominion that seeks to expand its power beyond
the limits of its authority
• Therefore, any supposed ecclesiastical authority that collects taxes
for its own benefit, or seeks to extend its power beyond the sphere
of spiritual matters, is not legitimate
• Wycliffe applied this last principle to civil power, which must also be
measured according to the service it renders to its subjects; Wycliffe
eventually lost support of many of the English nobles for this view
The Radicalization of Wycliffe’s
Views
• Wycliffe’s views became more radical as the result of the
scandal of the Great Western Schism (1378)
• The “true Church” is not the pope and his visible hierarchy, but
rather the invisible body of those who are predestined to
salvation
• It is impossible to know for sure who is “predestined,” but
there are indications or “fruits” of salvation in true believers
• Many ecclesiastical leaders were in truth “reprobate”;
eventually Wycliffe would declare that the pope was among
those who were probably reprobate
Wycliffe’s View of Scriptural
Authority
• Scripture is the possession of the Church and only the Church
can interpret Scripture correctly (as the Roman Church taught)
• However, the Church that owns the Scriptures is the body of
all who are predestined
• Therefore, the Bible ought to be put back into the hands of
believers, and in their own language
• Wycliffe and his followers began to put this into practice by
translating portions of the Bible into English
• By 1382, Wycliffe had managed to translate much of the New
Testament directly from the Latin Vulgate; Wycliffe’s Bible was
complete by 1384
Wycliffe and the Mass
• The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had declared the doctrine
of Transubstantiation
• Wycliffe would eventual reject this doctrine because he saw it
as a denial of the principle manifested in the incarnation
• When God was joined to human nature, the presence of divinity
did not destroy the humanity
• Likewise, when Christ unites himself with the bread and wine he
does not destroy them; in a sacramental or mysterious way, the
Body (Blood) of Christ is present in communion; but so is the
bread (wine)
• Wycliffe would be condemned in Oxford for this view;
however, after a brief imprisonment, he was allowed to
resume his studies and writings
Wycliffe’s End
• In 1381, Wycliffe retired to his parish in Lutterworth, a
benefice that he had received from the Crown for services
rendered (irony: Wycliffe profited from absenteeism)
• Wycliffe died of stroke in 1384 and buried in consecrated
ground
• The Council of Constance (1415) later condemned him; had
his remains disinterred and burned; ashes thrown in the River
Swift
• The movement called the “Lollards” took their inspiration
from Wycliffe
The Lollards
• Pejorative name meaning “mumblers”
• Believed in vernacular translations of the Bible, preached
against clerical celibacy, pilgrimages, and the abuse of images
• Also rejected Transubstantiation and prayers for the dead
• At first Lollardy had adherents among the gentry, but a
number of failed political uprisings brought it into disfavor
• Lollardy remained an underground movement in England up
to the 16th century; eventually Lollards would swell the ranks
of the Protestants in England
John Huss (13691415)
John Huss of Bohemia
• Famous preacher and scholar; rector of the University of
Prague (1402)
• At first he had no intention of changing the traditional
doctrines of the church; he only sought the reform of the
Christian life, particularly that of the clergy
• King Richard II of England had married a Bohemian princess;
through this political connection many Czechs were able to
study in England where they came into contact with the
writings of John Wycliffe
• The writings of Wycliffe caused a great stir in the University of
Prague, dividing the Germans and the Czechs in their opinions
of him
John Huss
• The Germans questioned Wycliffe’s orthodoxy, to which Huss
responded that it was the right of scholars to study Wycliffe
even if they did not agree with all of his positions
• Huss himself did not agree with Wycliffe on the question of
Transubstantiation
• The King of Bohemia supported the Czech scholars, compelling
the Germans to leave Prague and found the University of
Leipzig; on leaving Prague they declared Prague to have
become a hotbed of heresies
Conflict with the Pisan Papacy
• The Council of Pisa (1409) had attempted to end the Great Schism
by deposing two popes and electing a third (Alexander V and later
John XXIII); now there were three popes
• The Archbishop of Prague obtained a papal decree banning the
works of Wycliffe and ordering the preaching should only take place
in cathedrals, parish churches and monasteries
• Huss decided he could not obey and continued preaching at the
chapel of Bethlehem (which did not fall into any one of these
categories)
• In 1410, Huss was summoned to Rome to answer for his
disobedience; he refused to go and was excommunicated in 1411
• With the support of his king and the people of Bohemia, he ignored
the papal sentence and continued to preach and teach
The Radicalization of Huss’ Views
• While not questioning the legitimacy of the Pisan pope, he
nonetheless concluded that an unworthy pope was not to be
obeyed; popes acting in their own interests, and not for the
welfare of the church, were not to be obeyed
• Huss concluded that the Bible was the final authority by which
the pope as well as any Christian is to be judged
• Huss protested against John XXIII’s sale of indulgences to pay
for his crusade against Naples; he came to conclude that only
God can grant forgiveness, and to sell that which can only
come from God is a usurpation
• Huss also criticized John XXIII for making war against fellow
Christians; the king of Bohemia (who needed the pope’s
support) ordered Huss to silence his protest
John Huss’ Condemnation
• After another excommunication, Huss withdrew to the
countryside to write on the needed reformation of the Church
• In 1414, Emperor Sigismund (of Germany and Hungary) called
for a council to meet in Constance in order to end the “threepopes controversy”; he invited Huss to defend his views at the
council and granted him safe-conduct to attend
• Upon entering Constance, it was clear that John XXIII wanted
to try Huss outside of the council in a papal consistory; Huss
was taken into custody and ordered to recant; Huss responded
that he would recant only if someone could show him that he
was a heretic
• He was then treated as a prisoner; the emperor at first
protested, but then washed his hands of the affair
John Huss’ Condemnation
• On June 5, 1415, Huss finally appeared before the Council of
Constance
• John XXIII (the Pisan pope) had fled the council upon his
deposition, but had been captured and returned as a prisoner
• The hope was that the council would see Huss as the enemy
of the anti-pope John and thus be dismissed without charge
• Instead, Huss was condemned for his refusal to recant
John Huss’ Martyrdom
“I appeal to Jesus Christ, the only judge who is almighty and
completely just. In his hands I place my cause, since he will
judge each, not on the basis of false witnesses and erring
councils, but of truth and justice.”
• On July 6, Huss taken to the cathedral, dressed in priestly
garments which were then torn from him, shaved of his
tonsure, and had a paper crown decorated with demons
placed on his head; refusing one last chance to recant, he was
burned at the stake as he recited the Psalms
• Jerome of Prague, Huss’ colleague, was burned a few days
later
The Martyrdom of Huss
“Lord Jesus, it is for thee that I patiently endure this cruel death.
I pray thee to have mercy on my enemies.”
Rebellion in Bohemia
• Taborites and Horebites – two groups that claimed Huss as
their inspiration
• The threat of armed intervention led the various “Hussite”
groups to agree to Four Articles:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Word of God to be preached freely
Communion in “both kinds” (bread and wine)
Clergy should live in “apostolic poverty”
Gross and public sin should be punished severely
• One general council and two failed crusades against Bohemia
finally convinced the Catholics that negotiation with the
Hussites was necessary
The Church in Bohemia
• As a result of these negotiations, the Church of Bohemia
rejoined the rest of western Christendom, but allowed to
retain communion in both kinds and other elements of the
Four Articles
• Most Bohemians, particularly the nobility, accepted the
agreement; many left the church to found the Unitas Fratrum
(Union of Brethren)
• The Brethren grew rapidly, not only in Bohemia but also in
Moravia
• The Brethren established close ties with the Protestants in the
16th century, and some would ally with Lutheranism
• Hapsburg persecution in the 16th century almost wiped them
out; the “Moravians” would eventually come to the new world
The Later Course of
Scholasticism
But first we need to
back up a bit…
(Review)
Albert the Great
(1206-1280)
The Synthesis of Philosophy and
Theology in High Middle Ages
Philosophy
Theology
• Operates on the basis of
autonomous principles
• Can be known apart
from revelation
• Seek truth by a strict
rational method
• Does not seek to prove
what the mind cannot
understand
• Starts its inquiry from
the basis of revealed
truths
• Revealed truths are
those which cannot be
known by reason alone
• Revealed truths are
more certain than those
of reason (which may
err)
Thomas Aquinas (c.
1224-74)
Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-74)
• Born in Roccasecca, Italy (father: Landulf of Aquino)
• Nickname in childhood: “The Dumb Ox”; his teacher, Albert,
would later say, “The bellowing of that ox will be heard
throughout the world.”
• Joined the Dominican Order in 1244; imprisoned by his family
for a year
• Studied in Paris, Cologne
• Author: Summa contra Gentiles
• Arguments in favor of the Christian faith (benefit missionaries)
• Author: Summa theologiae (aka theologica)
• Three parts
• Detailed study of key aspects of Christian theology
Thomas’ lasting contribution
1. The “Five Ways” – arguments for the existence of God
2. The Principle of Analogy – theological foundation for
knowing God through creation
3. The relation of faith and reason
Later trends in Scholasticism
•
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Constant search for ever subtler questions to pose
Ever finer distinctions to answer them
Development of a dense style and technical vocabulary
Theology was no longer accessible to the “uninitiated”
The “marriage” between philosophy and theology started to
unravel
• Philosophy – what reason can discover
• Theology – what can only be known through divine revelation
• While Thomas and his generation had held that there was a
basic continuity between faith and reason (e.g. that the
existence of God could be reached by proper use of reason),
soon other thinkers would question this basic assumption
Duns Scotus (c. 1265-1308)
• Little is known of his early life; possibly born in Duns,
Berwickshire, Scotland
• Franciscan (“old” Franciscan school)
• Known as the “subtle doctor”
• Taught at Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris
Duns Scotus – noteworthy
developments
• Champion of Aristotle’s theory of knowledge
• Doctrine of Voluntarism – the divine will takes precedence
over the divine intellect
• The Immaculate Conception of Mary
• Main point of disagreement with earlier scholastics: that
doctrines such as the immortality of the soul or divine
omnipresence could be proven true by the sole and proper
use of reason
• At most, reason could show that they were possible, but could
not prove them: (e.g. Immaculate Conception)
William of Occam (c. 12801349)
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Born in Ockham, Surrey, England
Studied at the University of Oxford
Franciscan theologian & philospher
Developed many of the lines associated with Duns Scotus
Pioneered “Nominalism”
Contributions of Ockham
• Ockham’s “Razor” – the principle of parsimony
• The elimination of all hypotheses that were not absolutely
essential
• No need for intermediate steps (e.g. justification)
• Nominalism – “Universals” were declared to be totally a
unnecessary hypothesis
God’s “absolute” vs. “ordered”
power
• Absolute power knows no bounds; whatever God pleases to
do is possible (voluntarism), nothing is above this, even reason
• It is only according to “ordered” power that God acts
“reasonably,” and thus does good
• Strictly speaking, one should not say that God always does
good, but rather that whatever God does, no matter what it
might be, is good.
• Similarly, it is incorrect to say that God has to act reasonably.
Reason does not determine God’s actions; sovereign will of
God that determines what is to be considered reasonable, and
then by the “ordered” power of God, he acts accordingly
Results of this thinking…
• All traditional arguments whereby theologians had tried to
prove that a doctrine was reasonable, or fitting, lost their
power
• E.g. – the Incarnation: Since Anselm, it had been argued that
the incarnation was reasonable, since it canceled humankind’s
debt
• Theologians of the 14th-15th century would now say that it
doesn’t matter how reasonable it may look from our
perspective, God could have done whatever he pleased to
save man or not save man
• Could have simply canceled our debt, or called “meritorious”
what was not meritorious
The Question of Authority
• Paramount question in the 14th-15th centuries
• If reason cannot determine that a doctrine was true or false,
one must make such determinations on the basis of infallible
authorities
• Occam himself believed that both popes and councils could
err, so only the Bible was infallible
• The Great Western Schism gave further impetus to the idea
that a universal council was the final authority to which all
opposition must yield
Conciliarism
• The question of final authority is the basis for Huss’s
martyrdom
• The power of reason was of little value to end the schism,
since it could not prove or disprove doctrine, so a final
infallible authority must be invoked to settle the matter
• Had Huss been able to argue against the council it would have
called into question the council’s authority to end the schism
The Mystical
Alternative
Meister Eckhart
(1260-1327)
Eckhart von Hochbheim
(Meister Eckhart)
• Essentially a Neoplatonist; essential goal to contemplate the
divine
• All words about God are “inexact”; all language about God is
analogical
• True knowledge of God is not rationally conceived, but rather
intuitive
• God is not known by rational argument, but by mystical
contemplation in which one is finally lost in the divine
“Within that true essence of the godhead, which is beyond all
being and every distinction, there I already existed. There I
willed myself. There I knew myself. There I wished to create the
man I am. For that reason, I am my own cause according to my
being, which is eternal, although not according to my becoming,
which is temporal.” (Sermon on Blessed are the Poor in Spirit)
Accused of heresy…
• Such statement led naturally to charges of pantheism and
belief in the eternality (and divinity) of the soul
• Eckhart protested that he had been misinterpreted
• Convicted as a heretic toward the end of his life; appealed to
Rome, but died before his case was settled
• After his death Eckhart’s teachings would be expounded in
more accessible terms by his followers, particularly by John
Tauler and Henry Suso
Other mystics of the period
• Johannes Tauler (1300-1361)
• John of Ruysbroeck – follower of Eckhart, but his message was
more practical and related to everyday life
• Gerhard Groote – along with Ruysbroeck, gave shape to what
came to known as “modern devotion”, consisting mainly in a
life of disciplined devotion centered on the contemplation of
the life of Christ (e.g. The Imitation of Christ)
Brethren of the Common Life
• Like others before him, Groote set out to attack corruption in
the church and called his followers to renewed holiness and
devotion
• However, he did not call his followers to the monastic life;
rather they were to stay within their several “callings” and
follow the principles of “modern devotion”
• Many of his followers eventually did take monastic vows, but
continued to dedicate themselves to helping those who
pursued the “common life,” founding schools of training which
became centers of renewal for the church
• The Brethren gained a reputation for fostering a critical and
reforming spirit among their followers
• In time, the humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam would become
their most famous alumnus
The Imitation of Christ
• Thomas ‘a Kempis, 1300-1471
• Author of The Imitation of Christ, the most important mystical
work of the Middle Ages
• Four Books:
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Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual Life
Directives for the Interior Life
On Interior Consolation
On the Blessed Sacrament
The Influence of Mysticism
• The mystic movement was not overtly opposed to the church
or its hierarchy; though often criticized the abuses of the
clergy
• That being said, the spirit of mysticism often found within
itself the inner peace of its devotion
• Thus the tendency of mysticism was in effect to weaken the
authority of the church; if through direct contemplation one
can achieve communion with the divine, then what use are
the traditional means of grace in the sacraments, preaching
and even the Scriptures?
Revival of Classical
Learning
Renaissance and Humanism
Paradigm shift…
• At its height (13th-14th centuries), the Scholastic movement of
the Middle Ages had produced some highly significant
contributions to Christian theology
• A sense of tiredness and loss of intellectual energy sets in
during the 15th century
• Meanwhile, the Renaissance was taking hold on many centers
of education and learning, creating pressure for new
theological paradigms
• Revival of the glories of “classical antiquity”
• HUMANISM would provide both the impetus and the tools for
the drastic paradigm shift that would be “The Age of the
Reformation”
The Renaissance
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Meaning: “rebirth” – i.e. the rebirth of knowledge
Cultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuries
Flowering of art, science, literature, religion, and politics
Resurgence of learning from the classical period of Greek and
Roman antiquity (immediate past considered the “Dark Ages”)
• Intellectual transformation that swept Europe, widely
considered the “bridge” between the Middle Ages and the
Modern era
Characteristics of the
Renaissance
• Renaissance thinkers turned their gaze backward in historical
time; not to the immediate past which was arrogantly
assumed to be "dark," but to the classical past of ancient
Greece and Rome, which they assumed was bathed in light
• The Classic period was considered a “Golden Age.” Therein
were found thinkers who had similar interests to the
Renaissance thinker, and who had wrestled with identical
problems
• Increasingly, Renaissance thinkers would view the medieval
synthesis as too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining;
it was too logical, too systematic, too Aristotelian
• The Renaissance would end up reacting strongly against the
medieval synthesis -- against all “pigeon-holing”
Terms coined in the Renaissance
• “Middle Ages” – the thousand years since the fall of Rome;
seen as a negative “intermission” between classical antiquity
and their own time
• “Gothic” – also a derisive term (as it was a barbarian tribe)
• “Renaissance” – rebirth (intellectual, artistic)
• “Humanism” – study of the humanities, what we call today
the “liberal arts”
Fall of
Constantinople
(1453)
Fifteenth Century
• Byzantine exiles flooded into Italy, bringing with them their
knowledge of classical Greek literature
• Awakened an interest in classical learning
• Johannes Gutenberg (1436) – invention of the moveable-type
printing press
The impact of the printing
press
• Proliferation of books; proliferation of varying manuscripts of
important works, including the Bible
• The degree of variance between manuscripts was an “eye-opener”
• Now that several hundred copies could be made of everything, the
question naturally arises: Which manuscripts should we mass
produce? Which are the most accurate? How do we determine the
“best reading” of two or more variations?
• The rise of the science of textual criticism, and the production of
“critical editions” of Cicero, Jerome, and the New Testament
• Also called into question were the authenticity of some texts that
had, for centuries, been taken for granted as genuine (e.g. Donation
of Constantine)
Donation of Constantine
• Forged imperial decree in which Constantine supposedly gave
the pope jurisdiction over Rome and the entire West
• Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) studied the document and came to
the conclusion that its style and vocabulary showed that it was
much later than the time of Constantine; Valla also offered
strong arguments against the legend that the Apostles’ Creed
had been composed by the original 12 apostles
A New Vision of Reality
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
• Michelangelo (1475-1564)
Humanism
Spirit of Humanism
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Inherent distrust of the clergy and clerical aspirations
Disdain for monasticism
Opposed to the allegorical interpretation of Scripture
Tendency towards philosophical pragmatism; but walk a
tight rope between pragmatism and idealism
• Genuine interest in the study of the arts, and thus
indirectly concerned with the general welfare of man.
The latter concern most often limited to theory, not
practice
• Championed simplicity in doctrine and practice
• Favored political independence and the right
responsibility of free thought
Renaissance Popes
Nicholas V (1447-1455)
• Spent most of his reign trying to gain political power for Rome
over the other Italian states
• Goal to turn the city into the intellectual capital of the world
Calixtus III (1455-1458)
• First pope of the infamous Borgia family from Spain
• Dreamed of becoming a great secular prince; managed to
unify Italy in order to resist a possible Turkish attack
• Paid more attention to military campaigns than his priestly
duties
• Intera Caetera (1456) – reaffirmed Portuguese “right” to
enslave infidels and Africans
Pius II (1458-1464)
• Last of the Renaissance popes to take his office seriously
• Condemned the enslavement of newly baptized Christians
Paul II (1464-1471)
• Nephew of Eugene IV (1431-1447)
• At an early age he decided a career in ecclesiastical office was
more lucrative than one in trade
• Main interest was collection of arts; main occupation was the
restoration of the monuments of pagan Rome
• His concubines were publicly acknowledged in papal court
Sixtus IV (1471-1484)
• Bought the papacy by promising gifts and privileges
• Corruption and nepotism characterized his reign; the church
became a “family business” with nephews being elevated to
prestigious positions
• Once excommunicated the whole city of Florence in a bloody
feud with the Medici family
• Sistine Chapel is named for him
Innocent VIII (1484-1492)
• Took an oath before his election that he would not elevate any
member of his family; broke it as soon as he was elected
declaring that as pope he was not bound by it
• Acknowledged several of his illegitimate children
• Sale of indulgences became a shameless business
• Ordered Christendom “cleansed” of witchcraft
Alexander VI (1492-1503)
• Rodrigo Borgia
• Bought the cardinals’ votes; under him papal corruption
reached its peak; said to have committed publicly all the
capital sins except gluttony (his digestion was not good)
• Acknowledged his illegitimate children in the papal court, and
elevated many of them
• “Alexander is ready to sell the keys, the altars, and even Christ
himself. He is within his rights, since he bought them.”
• He had secret dealings with the Turkish sultan
• Italy was bathed in blood during his reign
Pius III (1503)
• Alexander and his favorite son, Cesare, died of the same
disease (perhaps they were both poisoned)
• Cesare had hoped to succeed his father, but the election fell to
Pius III, who showed early on that he would be a reformer
• However, Pius died after being pope for 26 days
Julius II (1503-1513)
• A “worthy successor” of Alexander VI
• Took the name to indicate that his model would be Julius
Caesar, rather than a Christian saint
• Patron of the arts; Michelangelo finished painting the Sistine
Chapel during his reign
• Favorite past-time was war; nearly united Italy by the sword,
but opposed by France and Germany
Leo X (1513-1521)
• Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Giovanni de Medici
• Patron of the arts; tried to consolidate the political and
military gains of Julius II
• Defeated by France, he was forced to sign an agreement that
gave the French king enormous authority in French
ecclesiastical affairs
• Generally incompetent in both war and diplomacy, he turned
his attention to his building projects in Rome
• His great dream was to complete the basilica of St. Peter’s in
Rome; the financing of which would come from the sale of
indulgences
• This would turn out to be the presenting cause for Luther’s
protest in Wittenberg, Germany
Reformation in the
Sixteenth Century
Reformation – or Reformations?
• “Reformation” traditionally used to refer to the western
European movement centering upon individuals such as:
• Martin Luther
• Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli
• John Calvin
Various Reformations
• The German Reformation, which gave rise to Lutheranism
• The Swiss Reformation, which gave birth to the Reformed
version of Christianity (Calvinism)
• The “Radical Reformation,” often referred to as “Anabaptism”
• The English Reformation, which gave rise to “Anglicanism”
• The “Catholic Reformation,” often referred to as the “Counter
Reformation”
• The “Second Reformation” within Protestantism through
which emerged the Confessional traditions
Martin Luther
(1483-1546)