Developmental Psychology:
Children and Adolescents
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Physical Development: Growth
 Motor Skills
 Puberty  maturity
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Growth
 Changes in
 size,
 body weight
 height
 head & arm circumference
 Body muscles
 teeth
 bones
 Etc.
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Changes in Body Size
 Body grows more rapidly
 Growth occurs in small spurts
 Length
 50% greater at age 1
 75% greater at age 2
 Weight
 Doubled by 5 months
 Tripled by 1 year
 Quadrupled at 2 years
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Changes in Body Proportions
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Body weight
 Changes in body weight is more dramatic
New born  2.7 – 3.6 kg.
5 mths  body weight 2 x weight at birth)
1 year old  3 x
2 year old  4 x
2-3 yr. old  rapid change in weight (spurt)
After 3 yr. old  slower rate
The first 6 mths  changes focused > on muscle
growth.
6-12 mths  dev. focused > on movement
2 yrs – pre puberty  body weight increase 2.5 kg per
year
Girls slightly shorter and lighter
Ethnic differences
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Growth Trends
 Cephalocaudal trend
 proceeds from head to tail
 head and chest develop/grow first before trunk
and legs.
 Proximodistal trend
 Center of the body outward
 arms and legs before hands and feet.
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Body Fat/Appearance
 Subcutaneous fat  begin to form in the fetus about
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6 weeks before birth.
First 9 mths  Sub. Fat continue to accumulate
rapidly  making baby look rounded & filled up.
Gain “baby fat” until about 9 months  After 9 mth,
fat accumulation slows down.
1 yr old – middle childhood  less fat accumulation
Toddlers become more slender (slimmer)
Muscle tone increase
Helps maintain constant temp.
Muscle tissue increases slowly  Peaks in adolescence
Girls= more fat than boys
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Body fat and muscle  contributes to the
development and body structure:
 Ectomorph  small/tall, slim, skinny
 Endomorph  flabby, obese
 Mesomorph  tough, musculine
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Height
 Child of same age may differ in height.
 Baby  length increase 30% until 5 mths old
 By age 1 yr  length increase to 50%
 5 years old  height doubles/triples
 2yrs old - puberty  height increase 2-3 in.
per year.
 Adolescent  sudden changes in height &
weight (growth spurt)
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Head circumference
 Baby
 Brain mass of a newborn  about 2/3 of adult size
 Head circ. of a new born  30-38 cm
 6 mths old baby  42.5 cm
 Head circ/size increase  parallel to brain
development.
 Newborn head bigger than body size  due
to rapid brain development during pre natal
period.
 5 yrs. Old brain weigh about 90% of adult
brain.
 6 yrs. old brain  equivalent to adult weight.
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What is brain?
 Body most vital organ.
 Each person is born with over 100 billions brain cells
(neurons).
 Brains can send signals to thousands of other cells in
the body at speed of more than 200 miles per hr.
 Brain growth before &after birth is fundamental to
future development.
 Sensitive Periods in Brain Development
 Several growth spurts in first 2 years
 Rich and varied experiences stimulate brain development
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Experience-expectant growth
 Ordinary experiences
“expected” by brain to grow normally
Experience-dependent growth
 Specific experience, varies widely
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1 organ with 3 mini
brains:
Brainstem (inner core)
 Breathing, heartbeat
muscle movement,
reflex behavior
Limbic system
 Covers the brainstem
 Motivation, emotions,
& long term memory
 Cerebellum – control
automatic
movements &
balance
Cerebral cortex
 Higher mental
process.
 Learning, memory,
Thinking, Language
 Last to develop
Structure of the
Brain
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Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
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Skeletal Growth
 Embryonic skeleton
 Soft, pliable tissue (cartilage)
 Beginning at week 6
 At birth babies have soft bones  cartilage.
 Changes is bones structure:
 Lengthen
 Harden
 Increase
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Lengthened
 Bones become longer, bigger & thicker
 Bones will stop growing when it harden (reach
maturity)
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Hardened
 At birth/baby  soft bones (cartilage)  water content is
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high.
During the process of ossification, bones harden 
calcium deposited.
Eg. As baby skulls harden & fuse  Fontanel gradually
close (about 2 years old).
Ossification occurs before birth and ends when a
person reach maturity.
Nutritious food  calcium, phosphorous & vitamins helps
ossification
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Increase
 Number of bones increases  parallel to its function
 Eg. Number of bones in the wrist & ankle increases
with age
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1 yr. 3 wrist bones;
adult  9 wrist bones
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Growth of the Skull
(Rapid during first 2 years)
 At birth
 Bone of the skull separate
 These gaps are called fontanels
 Sutures = seams of the skull
 By 2 years  Gaps filled in
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Motor Skills
 Motor skills are
 Voluntary movements of the body or parts of the
body.
 Controlled development of body movement
through the coordination of central nervous
system , sensory system and body muscles.
 A child motor skill contributes to child further
development  able to control movement 
assist adaptation in the environment.
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Motor Development
 Gross motor development
 Large movements
Eg. Crawling, Walking, Running, Jumping
 Head proceeds arms and trunk
 Improves dramatically during preschool years
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 Fine motor development  The ability to carry out smoothly small
movements that involve precise timing but not strength.
 Smaller movements
 e.g. Reaching and grasping
 Sequence the same
 Large differences in rate of motor progress
 Eg. Reaching, grasping, pinching, writing, drawing
 Involves the coordination between hand control and vision
(Eye-Hand coordination)
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Voluntary Reaching
 Vital role to cognitive development
 New ways for exploring environment
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Fine motor skill development
Steps in fine motor skill development: Prereaching (newborn) - Palmer grasp (reflex
grasp)
 Ulnar Grasp (3-4 months)
 Changing/passing object from one hand to the
other (5-8 mths)
 Pincer grasp (9- above)
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Reaching and Grasping
 Pre-reaching (0-2 months) (Palmer grasp)
 Ulnar grasp (3-4 months)
 Pincer grasp (9 months)
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Reaching and Grasping
 Prereaching (0-2 months)
 Uncoordinated, primitive reaching
 Palmer grasp (reflex grasp)
 Hand grasping & movement without
coordination.
 Often fail to grasp object successfully
 may make contact with object but
fail to enclose it in their fingers
 The grasp reflex should disappear
in 2 -3 months
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Reaching and Grasping
 Ulnar grasp (3-4 mth)
 Clumsy grasp
 Fingers close against the
palm
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Reaching and Grasping
 Pincer grasp (9 mth)
 Well-coordinated
grasp
 Oppositional use of
the forefinger and
thumb
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Early Experience and Reaching
 Trying to push infants beyond their current readiness
to handle stimulation can undermine the development
of important motor skills.
 As infants’ and toddlers’ motor skills develop, their
caregivers must devote more energies to protecting
them from harm.
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Influences on Early
Growth
 Heredity
 Nutrition
 Breast v. Bottle Feeding
 Malnutrition
 Emotional Well-Being
 Problems can cause Failure to Thrive
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Benefits of Breastfeeding
 Correct fat-protein balance
 Nutritionally complete
 More digestible
 Better growth
 Disease protection
 Better jaw and tooth
development
 Easier transition to solid food
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Malnutrition
Marasmus
Types
Kwashiorkor
Iron-deficiency anemia
Food insecurity
Physical symptoms
Growth and weight problems
Consequences
Poor motor development
Learning, attention problems
Passivity, irritability, anxiety
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By 3 MTHS OLD:
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 lift head when held at your shoulder
 lift head and chest when lying on his stomach
 turn head from side to side when lying on his stomach
 follow a moving object or person with his eyes
 often hold hands open or loosely fisted
 grasp rattle when given to her
 wiggle and kick with arms and legs
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 6 Mths Old:
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hold head steady when sitting with your help
reach for and grasp objects
play with his toes
help hold the bottle during feeding
explore by mouthing and banging objects
move toys from one hand to another
shake a rattle
pull up to a sitting position on her own if you grasp
her hands
sit with only a little support
sit in a high chair
roll over
bounce when held in a standing position
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 12 mths old
 drink from a cup with help
 feed herself finger food like raisins or bread crumbs
 grasp small objects by using her thumb and index or forefinger
 use his first finger to poke or point
 put small blocks in and take them out of a container
 knock two blocks together
 sit well without support
 crawl on hands and knees
 pull himself to stand or take steps holding onto furniture
 stand alone momentarily
 walk with one hand held
 cooperate with dressing by offering a foot or an arm
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 18 months:
 like to pull, push, and dump things
 pull off hat, socks, and mittens
 turn pages in a book
 stack 2 blocks
 carry a stuffed animal or doll
 scribble with crayons
 walk without help
 run stiffly, with eyes on the ground
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
By 2 years old:
 drink from a straw
 feed himself with a spoon
 help in washing hands
 put arms in sleeves with help build a tower of 3-4 blocks
 toss or roll a large ball
 open cabinets, drawers, boxes
 operate a mechanical toy
 bend over to pick up a toy and not fall
 walk up steps with help
 take steps backward
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 3 years of age:
- feed himself (with some spilling)
- open doors
- hold a glass in one hand
- hold a crayon well
- wash and dry hands by himself
- fold paper, if shown how
- build a tower of 54 blocks
- throw a ball overhead
- try to catch a large ball
- put on shoes (but not tie laces)
- dress herself with help
- use the toilet with some help
- walk up steps, alternating feet
- walk on tiptoes if shown how
- walk in a straight line
- kick a ball forward
- jump with both feet
- pedal a tricycle
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 4 years old:
- feed
herself (with little spilling)
- try to use a fork
- hold a pencil
- try to write name
- draw with the arm and not small hand movements
- draw a circle & a face
- try to cut paper with blunt scissors
- sometimes unbutton buttons
- try to buckle, button, and lace, even though she probably needs help
- completely undress herself if wearing clothes with simple fasteners
- brush teeth with help
- build a tower of 7-9 blocks
- put together a simple puzzle of 4-12 pieces
- pour from a small pitcher
- use the toilet alone
- try to skip
- catch a bouncing ball
- walk downstairs using a handrail and alternating feet
- swing, starting by himself and keeping himself going
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Motor Skills
 4-5 years old  Child able to control most of his
movement (jump, run, walk, climb).
 Above 5 yrs. Old  good fine motor
development  able to do more complex
coordinated movement (throw & catch ball,
writing, hold object with care)
 The sequence in motor skill development also
follows cephalocaudal, proximodistal and mass
to specific principle.
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 5 Years old:
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hops and skips
dresses without help
good balance and smoother muscle action
Skates
rides bicycles and scooter
prints simple letters
ties shoes
 girls small muscle development about 1 year ahead
of boys.
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 6-8 Years old:
 skilled at using scissors and small tools
 shows development of permanent teeth
 enjoys testing muscle strength and skills
 has good sense of balance
 can tie shoelaces
 enjoys copying designs and shapes, letters and numbers
 may have gawky awkward appearance from long arms and legs
 throwing at targets,
 running,
 jumping rope,
 tumbling
 aerobics may be of interest
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MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
By 12 Years old
 (Boys  80% adult height; Girls  90% of adult
height)
 Growth is slower than in preschool years, but
steady.
 Eating may fluctuate with activity level.
 Some children have growth spurts in the later stages of middle
childhood.
 Transition towards adolescent
 Pre puberty period  Body changes (hips widen, breasts bud,
pubic hair appears, testes develop) indicate approaching
puberty.
 Beginning of Puberty  menstruation in girls (menarch) 1214 years old First ejaculation in boys  12-13 years old
(semenarch)
 Recognize differences between boys and girls.
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(con’t) By 12 Years old
 Children find difficulty balancing high energy activities and
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quiet activities.
Intense activity may bring tiredness Children need around
10 hours of sleep each night.
Muscle coordination and control are uneven and incomplete in
the early stages, but children become almost as coordinated as
adults by the end of middle childhood.
Small muscles develop rapidly, making playing musical
instruments, hammering, or building things more enjoyable.
Baby teeth will come out and permanent ones will come in.
Permanent teeth may come in before the mouth has fully
grown, causing dental crowding.
Eyes reach maturity in both size and function.
The added strain of school work (smaller print, computers,
intense writing) often creates eye-tension and leads some
children to request eye examinations.
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Physical Development
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Physical Development in
Early Childhood
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Physical Development in Early Childhood
 Body Growth Slows
 Shape becomes more streamlined
 Skeletal Growth Continues
 New growth centers
 Lose baby teeth
 Asynchronies
 Brain, lymph nodes
grow fastest
Brain Development in Early Childhood
 Frontal lobe areas for planning and organization
develop
 Left hemisphere active
 Language skills
 Handedness
 Linking areas develop
 Cerebellum
 Reticular formation
 Corpus callosum
Linking Structures of the Brain
Handedness
 Begins as early as 1 year and strengthens
 90% are right-handed
 Left-handedness not caused by brain problems
 Affected by Experience
 Position in uterus
 Practice
Influences on Physical Growth & Health
 Heredity and Hormones
 Growth hormone
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone
 Emotional Well-Being
 Psychosocial dwarfism
 Sleep
 Nutrition
 Infectious Disease
 Immunization
 Childhood Injuries
Helping Young Children Sleep
 Regular bed time
 Early enough for 10-11 hours of sleep
 Special pajamas
 No TV or computer games before bed
 Bedtime ritual
 Respond firmly but gently
to bedtime resistance
 No sleeping medication
Nutrition in Early Childhood
 Appetite becomes unpredictable
 Like familiar foods
 Need high-quality diet
 Social environment influences food choices
 Imitate admired people
 Repeated exposure to foods
 Emotional climate,parental pressure
 Poverty
Factors Related to Childhood Injuries
 Individual Differences
 Gender
 Temperament
 Poverty, low parental education
 More children in the home
 Societal conditions
 International differences
Motor Skill Development in Early Childhood
 Gross Motor Skills
 Walking, running smoother
 Catching, throwing, swinging,
riding
 Fine Motor Skills
 Self-help: dressing, eating
 Drawing
Progression of Drawing Skills
 Scribbles: during 2nd year
 First Representational Forms
 Label already-made drawings:
around age 3
 Draw boundaries and people:
3–4 years
 More Realistic Drawings:
preschool to school age
 Early Printing: Ages 3–5
Development of Children’s Drawing
Development of Printing in Early Childhood
Up to Age 3
Around
Age 4
Scribbles
Varied
pencil grips
“Drawing
print”
Between Gradually realize writing stands for
Ages 4 and language, identify individual letters
Adult pencil grip by age 5
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Variations in 3-Year-Olds’ Pencil Grip
Individual Differences in Motor Skills
 Body Build
 Taller, longer limbed better at
running and jumping
 Sex
 Boys: better at power
and force
 Girls: fine motor skills, balance,
foot movement
Enhancing Early Childhood Motor Development
 Mastered through everyday
play
 Formal lessons have little impact
 Daily routines support fine
motor development
 Provide appropriate play
space and equipment
 Promote fun and positive
attitude
Physical
Development in
Middle Childhood
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Body Growth in Middle Childhood
 Slow, regular pattern
 Girls shorter and lighter until about age 9
 Lower portion of body growing fastest
 Bones lengthen
 Muscles very flexible
 All permanent teeth arrive
Middle Childhood
Growth Worldwide
 Shortest children:
South America, Asia, Pacific Islands, parts of Africa
 Tallest children:
North & central Europe,Australia, Canada, U.S.
 Secular trend in industrialized countries toward larger and
heavier children
Brain Development
in Middle Childhood
 Myelination increases white matter in
 Frontal lobes
 Corpus callosum
 Children acquire complex abilities
 Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect
cognition and behavior
Common Health Problems in Middle Childhood
 Vision – Myopia
 Hearing – Otitis media (middle ear infection)
 Malnutrition
 Obesity
 Bedwetting
 Illnesses
 Injuries
Causes of Myopia
 Genetics
 Myopic parents
 Asian heritage
 Early biological trauma
 Low birth weight
 Experience
 Reading & close work
 Computer use
Nutrition Problems in Middle Childhood
 Little focus on eating
 Fewer meals with family
 Too few fruits and vegetables
 Too many fried foods
and soft drinks
 Poverty and lack of
nutritional food
Causes of Obesity in Middle Childhood
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Overweight parents
Early rapid growth or malnutrition
Low SES
Family eating habits
Response to food cues
Low physical activity
Television
Risks for Obese Children
 More likely to be
 Psychological risks
overweight adults
 Health risks
 Feeling unattractive
 Blood pressure,
teasing
 Depression
 Problem behaviors
 Early puberty and
sexual problems
cholesterol
 Respiratory
problems
 Diabetes
 Liver, gall bladder
 Cancer
 Stereotyping and
Illnesses in Middle Childhood
 More acute illnesses first two years of
school
 Exposure
 Still developing immune system
 Chronic Diseases - 15–20 percent
 Asthma
 Severe illnesses – 2%
Accidents in Middle Childhood
 Most common types:
 Motor vehicle
 Bicycle
 Pedestrian
 Prevention
 Teach safety
 Model safe behavior
 Require helmets
 Watch high-risk children more
Deaths from Injuries, North
American Children, Ages 5–19
Motor Development
in Middle Childhood
 Gross Motor Skills Improvements
 Flexibility
 Balance
 Agility
 Force
 Fine Motor Skills Gains
 Writing
 Drawing
Six-Year Old’s Drawing
Eight-Year Old’s Drawing
Ten-Year Old’s Drawing
Individual Differences in Motor Skills
 Body build
 Sex
 Family encouragement, expectations
 SES
 School & community lessons
available
Physical Play Development in Middle Childhood
 Child-Organized Games with Rules
 Sports
 Invented Games
 Video Games
 Adult-organized sports
 Physical Education
Providing Developmentally
Appropriate Sports
 Build on children’s interests
 Emphasize enjoyment
 Let kids contribute
 Teach age-appropriate skills
 Limit practices
 Discourage unhealthy competition
 Focus on personal and team
improvement
Rough and Tumble Play
 Friendly chasing and play-
fighting
 Common in many mammals and
across cultures
 Peaks in middle childhood
 Boys do more
 May help establish dominance
hierarchy
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Cognitive Development
In
Children
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Cognitive Development….
 Refers to
 Internal process and the product of the mind
 leading to knowledge development
 Covers a wide aspects of mental activities:
 Memorizing
 Categorizing & simbolizing
 Problem solving & creativity
 Inventions
 Dreaming & fantasizing
 Reading & Writing
 Language acquisition etc
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Cognitive Development involves:
 Changes in thinking (logic)
 Language acquisition
 The process of how human receive, store and
remember information (knowledge) from their
environment.
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Intellectual Development :
 How human relate the knowledge they receive and
applied it to their everyday lives.
 How the information from the environment
Receive
 Stored
 Re-use
 Stressed on individual
 Level of understanding & use of knowledge
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 Thus, every changes, including those learned is
being: Recorded by the brain
 Processed which involves mental activities
 The thinking & reasoning process of children
differs from adolescent and adults.
 As age increases, the ability to think and reasons
became complex (better)
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Improvements in Information Processing During
Infancy
Efficiency, ability to shift focus improve.
Less attraction to novelty, better sustained
attention after first year.
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Attention
Retention intervals lengthen.
Recall appears by 1 year; excellent in
second year.
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Memory
Impressive perceptual categorization in first
Categorization year.
Conceptual categorization in second year
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Store Model of Information Processing System
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Piaget’s Theory: Schemes
 Psychological structures
 Organized ways of making sense of
experience
 Change with age
 Action-based (motor patterns) at first
 Later move to a mental (thinking) level
Piaget Cognitive theory
 Focus on the
 Function and the reaction of the mind  to the
environment
 According to Piaget:
 Human being can think and are rational
 The thinking ability of a child is strong and
inquisitive :
 Always interact with their environment 
consistent to their understanding and cognitive
ability.
 Piaget argued that children have schemas.
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Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory :
 SCHEMA is a/an…
 cognitive structure  built to assist individual to understand
their past experiences.
 Organized ways of making sense of experience
 Child’s schemas change with age  involved the modification
of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand its
world
 Action-based (motor patterns) at first
 Later move to a mental (thinking) level
 Thus, Schemas are…
 organized patterns of thought or behavior  assist in making
sense of experience
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Building Schemes
 Adaptation
 Building schemes
 Assimilation
 Using current schemes to
interpret external world
 Accommodation
 Adjusting old schemes and
creating new ones to better fit
environment
How Cognitive Changes Takes Place?
 Through the process of: ADAPTATION
 ORGANIZATION.
 A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on:
 How a child response to an event that occurs in their
environment.
 The effect of these event on their development.
 Schemas developed by children must be able to
handle new information and situations
 Schema can be built based on adaptation process
 Adaptation is the process of building schemes
through direct interaction with the environment.97
 According to Piaget, adaptation can be further divided into two
intellectual processes:
 Assimilation: Involves interpreting new information in light
of an old (existing) schema. E.g: All 4-legged animals are
viewed as a “dog”
 Accommodation: Process by which old schemas are created or
modified to fit new situations. E.g.: A horse is not a “dog”

Equilibrium exist when children are not changing
very much and they are in a steady, comfortable
cognitive state  Assimilation is used more than
accommodation.

Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive discomfort,
that occurs during times of rapid change 
Accommodation is used more than assimilation
98
How Cognitive Changes Takes Place?
 Organization is an internal process of arranging
and linking together schemas to form an
interconnected cognitive system.
 Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium when
they become part of a broad network of structures
that can be jointly applied to the surrounding
world.
99
Piaget’s Theory on The Level of Cognitive
Development
Stages of Cognitive development:
Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)
2. Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)
3. Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)
4. Formal Operation (12 and above)
1.
100
101
Sensorimotor Stage
 Birth to 2 years
 Building schemes through sensory
and motor exploration
 Circular reactions
102
Stage 1: Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)
 Piaget based this stage on his observation of his children.
 Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR):
 CR the means by which infants explore the
environment and build schemas by trying to repeat
chance events caused by their own motor activity.
 Reactions are first centered on infant’s own body 
later change to manipulating objects  then to produce
effects in the environment.
 8-12 mths  Concept of Object permanence develop

Object permanence, the realization that an
object/person continues to exist when out of sight.
103
Sensorimotor Substages
Reflexive Schemes
Birth –1
month
Primary Circular
Reactions
1 – 4 months Simple motor habits centered
around own body
Secondary Circular
Reactions
4 – 8 months Repeat interesting effects in
soundings (external)
Coordination of
Secondary Circular
Reactions
8 – 12
months
Intentional, goal-directed behavior;
object permanence
Tertiary Circular
Reactions
12 – 18
months
Explore properties of objects
through novel actions
Mental
Representations
12 months –
2 years
Internal depictions of objects or
events; deferred imitation
Newborn reflexes
104
Object Permanence
 Understanding that objects continue to exist when
out of sight
 According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4.
 Incomplete at first
105
Mental Representations
 Internal, mental depictions of objects,
people, events, information
 Can manipulate with mind
 Allow deferred imitation (ability to
remember and copy the behavior
of models who are not immediately
present) and make-believe play
106
Deferred Imitation
 Piaget: Develops about 18 months
 Newer research:
 Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation
 6 – 9 months – copy actions with objects
 12 – 14 months – imitate rationally
 18 months – imitate intended,
but not completed, actions
107
108
Stage 2: The Preoperational Child
(2-7 yrs old)
 Cognitive Advances

Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in the use
of *symbolic thought, or representational ability, which
first emerges at the end of the sensorimotor stage

An understanding of symbolism comes only gradually
usually after age
 Growing understanding of space, causality, identities,
categorization, and number
109
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
 Gains in Mental Representation
 Make-believe Play
 Dual Representation
 Limitations in Thought — Cannot Perform Mental
Operations
 Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking
 Conservation
 Hierarchical Classification
110
Development of Make-Believe Play …..
 With age, make-believe gradually
becomes:
 More detached from real-life
conditions
 Less self-centered
 More complex
 Sociodramatic Play
111
Dual Representation
 Viewing a symbolic object as both an
object and a symbol
 Mastered around age 3
 Adult teaching can help
 Provide lots of maps, photos,
drawings,
make-believe playthings, etc.
 Point out similarities to real world
112
Animistic Thinking
 Belief that inanimate objects
have lifelike qualities
113
Immature Aspects Of Preoperational
Thoughts…..
 Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect
 Attribute life to inanimate objects = animism
 Failure to understand conservation: two things remain
equal if their appearance changes but nothing is added or
taken away


Egocentrism : Center so much on their own point of
view that they cannot take in another's
Conservation: Understanding that the basic properties
of an object are constant even if the object changes shape
114
Egocentrism
 Egocentrism refers to a cognitive
view in which a child understands
the world to have only their view
(has great difficulty in
understanding the views of others)
 E.g: Piaget’s three-mountain
task. A preoperational child is
unable to describe the
“mountains” from the doll’s point
of view - an indication of
egocentrism
115
Limits on Conservation
 Centration
Focus on one
aspect and
neglect others
 Irreversibility
Cannot
mentally
reverse a set of
steps
116
Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought

Egocentric
Thought


Illogical Thought


Categorization
Appearance
versus reality
Can adjust language to others and take
others’ perspectives in simple
situations.
Animistic thinking comes from
incomplete knowledge of objects.
Can do simplified conservation
Can reason by analogy
Use causal expressions

Everyday knowledge is categorized.

Make-believe helps children tell the
difference.
117
Educational Principles
Derived from Piaget’s Theory
 Discovery learning
 Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn
 Developmentally appropriate practice
 Acceptance of individual differences
118
Do Young Children Have Theories Of Mind, i.e.
awareness of their own mental processes and those of
other people?
 Piaget: children younger than 6 cannot distinguish between
thoughts or dreams and real physical entities and have no theory
of mind
 What is Theories Of Mind?
 Theories Of Mind is….



Preschoolers generally believe that mental activity starts and stops.
Not until middle childhood do children know that the mind is
continuously active
By age 3, children's understanding of others' emotional and mental
states is becoming more mature. They realize that a person who does
not immediately find what she wants will keep looking.
Children tend to believe that everyone else knows what they know and
believes what they do
119
120
Achievements of a Concrete
Operational Stage Child
 Conservation
 Decentration
 Reversibility
 Classification/ categorization
 Seriation
 Transitive inference
 Spatial Reasoning
 Directions
 Maps
121
Understand the concept of conservation
Understand the principleof identityCategorisation/
classification
o Transitive inference - able to recognize a relationship
between two objects by knowing the relationship between
them and a third object.
o Class inclusion - able to see the relationship between a
whole and its parts.
o Children now use inductive reasoning. Starting with
observations about particular members of a class of
people, animals, objects, or events, then draw general
conclusions about the class as a whole.
They understand seriation can arrange objects in a series
based on one or more dimensions, such as weight (lightest to
heaviest) or color
Understanding of spatial relationships/ reasoning better
Children's thinking at this stage is so concrete
122
Limitations of Concrete Operational
Thought….
 Operations work best with objects that are
concrete
 Problems with abstract ideas
 Horizontal décalage
 Master concrete operational tasks gradually
(development within a stage i.e. a step-by step
fashion, not all at once)

E.g, they usually grasp conservation problem in a
certain order first: first number  then length, mass
& liquid  finally area & weight
123
Attention in Middle Childhood
Attention becomes more:
 Selective
 Adaptable
 Planful
124
Key Information Processing
Improvements
 Increase in information-processing capacity
 Gains in cognitive inhibition

Both may be related to brain
development
125
Steps in Planning
 Postponing action to weigh alternatives
 Organizing task materials
 Remembering steps of plan
 Monitoring how well plan works
 Revising if necessary
126
Development in Memorizing Strategies
 Chunking - Breaking the information into manageable





chunk.
 eg. OFHRTJUDYCX  OFH RTJ UDY CX
Rehearsal - Simple repetition
 Elaboration  when info to be remembered is linked to
other information
Imagery - Conjured image of an object/related meaning.
Mnemonics - Memory strategy to help remember information
 Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned information with
well learned information.
Schema activation - Strategy to use with encoding complex
info.  relates new information to prior knowledge.
Level of processing -Material that is only skimmed will not
be as deeply processed as material that is studied in
detail.
127
Information Processing & Academic Learning
 Reading
 Whole-language approach
 Basic-skills approach
Mathematics
Drill
“Number
sense”
128
Theory of Mind in Middle Childhood
 See mind as active, constructive
 Understand more about sources of knowledge
 Mental inferences
 False beliefs
 Consider interactions
of variables
 Schooling promotes developing theory of mind
129
130
Formal Operation
 Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation
 Develop the capacity for abstract thought a new,






more flexible way to manipulate information
Can use symbols more extensively
Can understand metaphor and allegory
Can imagine possibilities and can form and test
hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning)
Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise in
specific fields
Higher gain of information-processing capacity;
Growth in metacognition awareness and monitoring
of one's own mental processes and strategies.
131
INTELLIGENCE
132
133
IQ Tests




Group Tests
Allow testing of large groups
Require little training to
administer
Useful for instructional planning
Identify students who need
individual testing
Individually-Administered
Tests
 Examiners need training &
experience
 Provide insights about
accuracy of score
 Identify highly intelligent and
children with learning problems
134
Examples of IQ test
 Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½ yrs)
o Mental, motor, social scale
 Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult)
o
General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual, short term memory
scale
 Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC III)
 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence WPPSI-R)
 6-16 yrs (WISC)
o Verbal & performance scale
 Kaufman Battery of Assessment
o Information processing
135
Calculating IQ
 Formula
* MA/CA x 100 = IQ
Ma = mental age
CA = Chronological age
 Example
 Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a metal age of 12 years old.
Thus Hasif have an IQ of 120, ie.
12/10 x 100 = 120
 According to IQ score chart,
 Score above100
= cerdik pintar
 Score between 100 -69 = kurang kemampuan intelektual
 score of 70 & below
= kurang upaya mental
136
Explaining Differences in IQ
 Genetics
 Accounts for about half of
differences
 Environment
 SES
 Culture
 Communication styles
 Cultural bias in test content
137
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
138
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
 Linguistic
 Logico-mathematical
 Musical
 Spatial
 Bodily-kinesthetic
 Naturalist
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
139
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
4.140
©
2006
The
McG
rawHill
Com
panie
s,
Inc.
All
right
s
reser
ved.
Santr
ock,
Educ
ation
al
Psyc
holo
gy,
Seco
nd
Editi
on,
Class
room
Upda
te
Generational Gains in Test Scores
141
The Child in School
 Children with Learning Problems
 Mental retardation =significantly subnormal cognitive
functioning
 Dyslexia=developmental reading disorder in which reading
achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ
or age.
 Learning disabilities =disorders that interfere with school
achievementperformance substantially lower than
expected.
 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with or
without hyperactivity
ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with heritability approaching
80 percent
 ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes combined with
behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills, and special
classroom placement

142
Gifted and Talented Children
 Gifted
 Exceptional intellectual strength

The traditional criterion of giftedness is
high general intelligence, as shown by an
 Usually measured by high IQ (score
of 130 or higher)
 Talented
 Outstanding performance in a
specific field
 Measured by divergent thinking
and creativity
143

Gifted Children:

A classic longitudinal study of gifted children began in 1921, by
Lewis M. Terman:



these children were taller, healthier, better coordinated,
better adjusted, and more popular than the average child
Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational superiority has
held up for nearly eighty years
Creativity=ability to see things in a new light


divergent thinking
enrichment or acceleration classes for both gifted and creative
children
144
Asian Schools versus North American Schools
Asian schools show more:
 Cultural valuing of academic achievement
 Emphasis on effort
 High-quality education for all
 Time devoted to instruction
145
146
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 3 MTHS OLD:
 turn head toward bright colors and lights
 turn toward the sound of a human voice
 recognize bottle or breast
 respond to your shaking a rattle or bell
147
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 BY 6 MTHS OLD:
 open his mouth for the spoon
 imitate familiar actions you perform
 Language

babble, making almost sing-song sounds
148
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 12 MTHS OLD:
 copy sounds and actions you make
 respond to music with body motion
 try to accomplish simple goals (seeing and
then crawling to a toy)
 look for an object she watched fall out of
sight (such as a spoon that falls under the
table)
149
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 18 months:
 identify an object in a picture book
 laugh at silly actions (as in wearing a bowl as a hat)
 look for objects that are out of sight
 put a round lid on a round pot
 follow simple 1-step directions
 solve problems by trial and error
 Language

say 8-10 words you can understand
150
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 2 years old:
 like to take things apart
 explore surroundings
 point to 5-6 parts of a doll when asked
 Language







have a vocabulary of several hundred words
use 2-3 word sentences
say names of toys
ask for information about an object (asks, "Shoe?"
while pointing to shoe box)
hum or try to sing
listen to short rhymes
like to imitate parents
151
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 3 years :
 recognize sounds in the environment
 pay attention for about 3 minutes
 remember what happened yesterday
 know what is food and what is not food
 know some numbers (but not always in the right order)
 know where things usually belong
 understand what is "1“, "now," "soon," and "later“
 substitute one object for another in pretend play (as in pretending a block
is a "car")
 laugh at silly ideas (like "milking" a dog)
 look through a book alone
 match circles & squares; match object to a picture of that object or match
objects that have same function (as in putting a cup and plate together)
 count 2 to 3 objects
 avoid some dangers, like a hot stove or a moving car
 follow simple one-step commands
152
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 3 years :
 Language






use 3-5 word sentences
ask short questions
use plurals ("dogs," "cars," "hats")
name at least 10 familiar objects
repeat simple rhymes
name at least one color correctly
153
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 By 4 years old:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
recognize red, yellow, and blue
understand taking turns and can do so without always being
reminded
understand "big," "little," "tall," "short“
want to know what will happen next
sort by shape or color
count up to 5 objects
follow three instructions given at one time
("Put the toys away, wash your hands, and come eat.")
distinguish between the real world and the imaginary or pretend
world
identify situations that would lead to happiness, sadness, or anger
154
By 5 years old:
 Can count 10 or more objects
 Correctly names at least four colors
 Better understands the concept of time
 Knows about things used every day in the home
(money, food, appliances)
155
Mental Development 6-12 years old
 Children can begin to think about their own behavior and see
consequences for actions.
 In the early stages of concrete thinking, they can group things
that belong together (for instance babies, fathers, mothers,
aunts are all family members). As children near adolescence,
they master sequencing and ordering, which are needed for
math skills.
 Children begin to read and write early in middle childhood and
should be skillful in reading and writing by the end of this stage.
 They can think through their actions and trace back events that
happened to explain situations, such as why they were late to
school.
156
 Children learn best if they are active while they are learning. For
example, children will learn more effectively about traffic safety
by moving cars, blocks, and toy figures rather than sitting and
listening to an adult explain the rules.
 Six- to 8-year-olds can rarely sit for longer than 15-20 minutes for
an activity. Attention span gets longer with age.
 Toward the beginning of middle childhood, children may begin
projects but finish few. Allow them to explore new materials.
Nearing adolescence, children will focus more on completion.
 Teachers set the conditions for social interactions to occur in
schools. Understand that children need to experience various
friendships while building esteem.
157
 Children can talk through problems to solve them. This





requires more adult time and more sustained attention by
children.
Children can focus attention and take time to search for
needed information.
They can develop a plan to meet a goal.
There is greater memory capability because many routines
(brushing teeth, tying shoes, bathing, etc.) are automatic
now.
Child begins to build a self-image as a "worker." If
encouraged, this is positive in later development of career
choices.
Many children want to find a way to earn money.
158
159
160
Emotional and Social
Development in Infancy and
Toddlerhood
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamics
 Psychosexual stages
(S. Freud)
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
 Psychosocial
 (E. Erickson)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust Vs Mistrust
Autonomy Vs Shame
Initiative Vs Guilt
Industry Vs Inferiority
Identity Vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy Vs Isolation
Generativity Vs Stagnation
Integrity Vs Despair
PSYCHODYNAMIC STAGES
Age
Erikson’s Stage
Freud’s Stage
First Year
Basic Trust
vs
Mistrust
Oral
Second
Year
Autonomy
vs
Shame and Doubt
Anal
Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Integrity vs Despair
Generativity vs Stagnation
Intimacy vs Isolation
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
165
Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety
 STRANGER ANXIETY





the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering
an unfamiliar person.
Appears in the second half of the first year.
Infants with more experience with strangers tend to show
less anxiety.
Infants tend to show less anxiety with female strangers and
other children than males.
The same cognitive advances that allow infants to respond so
positively to those with whom they are familiar also means they are
able to recognize people who are unfamiliar.
166
 SEPARATION ANXIETY
.  is the distress displayed by infants when a customary
care provider departs
 Usually begins about 8 or 9 months and peaks at 14 months
 Starts slightly later than stranger anxiety
 Largely attributable to the same cognitive skills as stranger
anxiety.
 Both stranger & separation anxiety represent important
social progress! They reflect cognitive advances in the
infant, and growing emotional and social bonds!
167
More about understanding emotion…
Social referencing: Feeling what others feel
SOCIAL REFERENCING is the intentional search for
information to help explain the meaning of
uncertain circumstances and events
(modeling others, mimicking expressions)
 First occurs in infants at about 8-9 months.
 Infants make particular use of facial expressions in
their social referencing.
 Social referencing is most likely to occur in
uncertain and ambiguous situations.
168
The Development of Self in Infancy
The roots of SELF-AWARENESS, knowledge of
self, begin to grow around 12 months.




Self-awareness is assessed by the mirror and rouge
task
Most infants touch their nose to attempt to wipe off the
rouge at 17-24 months.
Crying, when presented with complicated tasks, also
implies consciousness that infants lack capability to
carry out tasks.
169
 Children's capacity to understand internationality and causality
grow during infancy.
 By age two, infants demonstrate EMPATHY, an emotional
response that corresponds to the feelings of another person.
 By age two, children can "pretend".
170
ATTACHMENT
•
ATTACHMENT

the positive emotional bond that develops
between a child and a particular individual.
171
172
Early researchers studied bonds between parents and
children in the animal kingdom to understand attachment


Lorenz studied imprinting in animals, the rapid,
innate learning that takes place during a critical
period and involves attachment to the first moving
object observed.
Freud suggested that attachment grew out of a
mother's ability to satisfy a child's oral needs.
173


Harlow showed, with monkeys, that food
alone is insufficient to bring about
attachment.
In spite of the fact that the wire monkey
provided food, the infant monkeys
preferred clinging to the warm, terry cloth
monkey
174
ATTACHMENT




The earliest work on humans was carried out by John
Bowlby (Attachment theory) who suggested that
attachment had a biological basis.
Bowlby viewed attachment as based on infant's needs for
safety and security (especially from the mother)
Attachment viewed as critical for allowing the infant to
explore the world
Having a strong, firm attachment provides a safe base
from which the child can gain independence.
175
STRANGE SITUATION STUDY
• Based on Bowlby's work, Mary Ainsworth
developed the AINSWORTH STRANGE
SITUATION, a sequence of 8 staged
episodes that illustrate the strength of
attachment between a child and (typically) his
or her mother.
176
The 8 staged episodes of the
AINSWORTH STRANGE SITUATION
1. Mother & baby enter an unfamiliar room
2. Mother sits, letting baby explore
3. Adult stranger enters room can converses with
mom and then baby
4. Mother exits the room, leaving baby with stranger
5. Mom returns; greets and comforts baby and
stranger leaves
6. Mom departs leaving baby alone
7. Stranger returns
8. Mother returns and stranger leaves
177
Infants’ reactions to the strange situation vary
considerably, depending on the nature of attachment with
mother…
a.
2/3 are SECURELY ATTACHED CHILDREN, who use
mother as a safe base, at ease as long as she is
present, exploring when they can see her, upset
when she leaves, and go to her when she returns.
a.
20 % are labeled AVOIDANT CHILDREN who do not
seek proximity to the mother; after she leaves they
seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are
angered by her behavior.
178
(the strange situation technique, Mary Ainsworth,
nature of attachment , continued)


About 12 % are AMBIVALENT CHILDREN who display
a combination of positive and negative reactions to
their mothers; they show great distress when the
mother leaves, but upon her return they may
simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and
kick her.
A recent expansion of Ainsworth's work suggests a
fourth category: DISORGANIZED-DISORIENTED
CHILDREN who show inconsistent, often
contradictory behavior, such as approaching the
mother when she returns but not looking at her; they
may be the least securely attached children of all.
179
Attachment & Later
Development
 Infant attachment may have significant consequences
for relationships at later stages in life.
 Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in:
 Preschool
 Middle childhood
 Continuity of care giving may link infant attachment
and later development.
 But not all children who are not securely attached as
infants experience difficulties later in life; some
research suggests that those who had avoidant and
ambivalent attachment do quite well later in life.
Factors that Affect
Attachment Security
 Opportunity for attachment
 Quality of caregiving
 Interactional synchrony
 Infant characteristics
 Family circumstances
 Parents’ internal working models
Multiple Attachments
 Fathers
 Siblings
 Grandparents
 Professional caregivers
Self-Control




Ability to resist impulses
Emerges around 18 months
Improves through early childhood
Individual differences are lasting:
 Gender
 Sensitive caregiving
Compliance
 Understanding and obeying caregivers’
wishes and standards
 Emerges between 12 and 18 months
 Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes
not complying
 Warm, sensitive caregiving increases
compliance
Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance
and Self-Control







Respond with sensitivity and support
Give advance notice of change in activities
Offer many prompts and reminders
Reinforce self-controlled behavior
Encourage sustained attention
Support language development
Increase rules gradually
TEMPERAMENT
 TEMPERAMENT is the patterns of arousal and
emotionality that are consistent and enduring
characteristics of an individual.
 Temperament refers to how children behave.
 Temperamental differences among infants appear from
the time of birth.
 Temperament shows stability from infancy through
adolescence
186
Temperament
(Alexander, Thomas & Chess)



EASY BABIES have a positive disposition; their body
functions operate regularly and they are adaptable.
DIFFICULT BABIES have negative moods and are slow to
adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation,
they tend to withdraw.
SLOW-TO-WARM-UP BABIES are inactive, showing relatively
calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally
negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting
slowly.
187
Genetics and Environment
in Temperament
Responsible
Genetic
Influences
for about half of individual
differences
Ethnicity, gender
Cultural
Environmental
Influences
caregiving styles
Boys & girls treated differently
Parents emphasize sibling differences
Combines
Goodness
Of Fit
genetics and environment
Differences among Infants Personality
Development and Uniqueness

The origins of PERSONALITY (the sum total of
the enduring characteristics that differentiate one
individual from another) begin in infancy
189
Personality Development and Uniqueness, continued
Erik Erikson's THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT considers how individuals come to
understand themselves and the meaning of others - and
their own - behavior.
The theory suggests that developmental change occurs
throughout the life span in 8 distinct stages



The first stage occurs in infancy, our current focus
190
Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development
Infancy marks the time of the TRUST-VERSUS-MISTRUST
STAGE (birth to 18 months) during which infants develop a
sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well
their needs are met by their caretakers.
 From around 18 months to 3 years infants enter the
AUTONOMY-VERSUS-SHAME-AND-DOUBT STAGE during
which Erikson believed toddlers develop either
independence and autonomy (if they are allowed the
freedom to explore) or shame and doubt (if they are
restricted and overprotected).
 Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infant's
experiences

191
192
Self Concept in the School Years:
Thinking About the Self
 During the preschool period, children
wonder about the nature of self
 The way they answer the question “Who am
I?” at this stage may affect their whole life!
193
(Self concept in the preschool years, cont…)



Preschoolers begin to form their SELF-CONCEPT
(their identity, or their set of beliefs about what one is
like as an individual).
Youngsters typically overestimate their skills and
knowledge (their self concepts are NOT necessarily
accurate).
They also begin to develop a view of self that
reflects the way their particular culture considers the
self.
194
Psychosocial Development
 According to Erikson’s preschoolers have already passed
through a couple of Developmental stages, & to pass through
the stages, a conflict/crisis must be resolved at each stage
 Preschoolers experience the INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT STAGE,
the period during which children experience conflict between
independence of action and sometimes negative results of that
action.
195
The Initiative Vs Guilt Stage
 Conflict occurs between the desire to become more
independent and autonomous and the guilt that may
occur.
 Preschoolers with supportive parents =independent &
autonomous
 Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective parents =
shame & self-doubt
 The foundational concept of this stage is that children
become aware that they are people too! They begin to
make decisions and shape the kind of person they are
to become!
196
Developing Racial & Ethnic Awareness


By the time they are 3 or 4 years of age, preschoolers
distinguish between members of different races and begin
to understand the significance of race in society.
Some youngsters begin to show preferential feelings for
members of their own race.
197
Gender Identity: Developing Femaleness & Maleness







Gender, the sense of being male or female, is well
established in young children.
One way gender is manifested is in play.

During the preschool years boys increasingly play with
boys.

Girls tend to play with girls.
Gender out-weighs ethnic variables when it comes to play

A boy would prefer to play with boys, than with girls
Preschoolers also begin to develop expectations about
appropriate behavior for girls and boys.
Like adults, preschoolers expect males to be more
independent, forceful and competitive and females to be
warm, nurturing, expressive and submissive.
These are expectations and not truths about actual behavior!
But viewing the world this way affects preschoolers behavior!
However, young children typically hold stronger genderstereotypes than adults.
198
Preschoolers' Social Lives (Social Development)

The preschool years are marked by increased interactions
with the world at large.
Around age 3, children begin to develop real friendships.
Peers come to be seen as individuals with special qualities.
R/shipbased on companionship, play & entertainment.
Friendship is focused on the carrying out of shared activities
(rather than just being in the same place at the same time!).
With age, preschooler's view of friendship evolves.








Older preschoolers see friendship as a continuing state, & as a
stable relationship that has meaning beyond the immediate
moment.
Older preschoolers pay more attention to concepts such as
trust, support, and shared interests.
Even by age 3, children are interested in maintaining smooth
social relationships with their friends, trying to avoid
disagreements.
199
(Preschool Social Life…)
Some children are more readily liked by their peers than others.

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Qualities associated with
popularity
physical attractiveness
being outgoing
being sociable
speaking more
smiling more
having a greater understanding
of others‘ emotions





Qualities associated with
disliked children
more likely to be aggressive
More disruptive,
impose themselves on their
peers
less cooperative
do not take turns.
200
Playing by the Rules: How Play Affects Social & Personality
Development
Categorizing play:

Three year olds typically engage in FUNCTIONAL PLAY
which involves simple, repetitive activities, that is, doing
something for the sake of being active.
(playing with dolls, skipping, jumping rope, etc)

By age 4, children typically engage in CONSTRUCTIVE
PLAY which involves manipulating objects to produce or build
something (legos, puzzles, etc.)

Constructive play allows children to test developing
cognitive skills.

Constructive play allows children to practice motor skills.

Constructive play allows children to problem solve.

Constructive play allows children to learn to cooperate
201
TYPES of PLAY (Parten, 1932)
 Non Social Play - is where a child only observe others play,





i.e. did not involve in the play
Solitary play - A child play with his/her toys only, i.e. no
contact with other children even though other children is
around.
Onlooker play - occurs when children simply watch others play
but do not actually participate themselves
Parallel play - is when children play with similar toys, in a
similar manner, but do not interact with each other.
Associative play- is when children play together in the same
activities/ game and communicate with each other. But without
specific task/aim.
Cooperative play- occurs when children play together and
have aim and specific task organize play and each have
their own role to play.
202
More about the effects of play on social and
personality development…
Associative and cooperative play generally do not emerge
until the end of the preschool years.
The nature of a child's play is influenced by their social
experiences.



Children with preschool experience engage in more social behaviors
earlier (associative & cooperative play, etc.)
203
Discipline: Teaching Preschoolers Desired Behaviors
PARENTING
 Diana Baumrind (1980) notes 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline:
AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS
 PERMISSIVE PARENTS
 AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS

204


Authoritarian Parents are controlling, punitive, rigid, & cold, &
whose word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from
their children & do not tolerate expressions of disagreement..
Permissive Parents provide lax & inconsistent feedback and
require little of their children.
2 types of permissive parents:

Permissive-indifferent parents are usually uninvolved in their
children's lives.

Their children tend to be dependent and moody.

Their children also tend to have low social skills and low selfcontrol
Permissive-indulgent parents are more involved with their children,
but they place little or no limits or control on their behavior.

Their children typically show low control and low social skills.

However, these children tend to feel that they are especially
privileged.

Authoritative Parents are firm, setting clear & consistent limits,
but try to reason with their children giving explanations for why they
should behave in a particular way.
205
Effect of parenting style on children…..
Children of authoritative parents tend to fare best: they are
independent, friendly with their peers, self-assertive, and
cooperative parents are not always consistent in their parenting
or discipline styles.
Children whose parents engage in aspects of the authoritative
style related to supportive parenting



Supportive parenting encompasses parental warmth, proactive
teaching, calm discussion during disciplinary episodes, and interest and
involvement in children's peer activities show better adjustment and are
protected from the consequences of later adversity.
206
Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect
cultural perspectives about the nature of children and the role of
the parents.



Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are more likely to involve
strict control. Such control is seen as a measure of parents‘
involvement in and concern for the welfare of their children.
In Western societies, and especially in the United States, parents are
more often advised to use authoritative methods.
However  No one parenting style is likely to be
successful or universally accepted! Cultural context
must be taken into consideration
207
208
Social & Personality Development: Understanding
Oneself in Middle Childhood
 Children in middle childhood are struggling to
understand who they are, and continue to explore
answers to the question “Who am I?”
 The Developing Self…….
~ During middle childhood, children begin to view
themselves less in terms of external physical attributes
and more in terms of psychological traits.
 Children realize they are good at some things and not so good
at others.
 Their self-concepts become divided into personal and
academic spheres…
209
Children use SOCIAL COMPARISON, comparing themselves to
the abilities, expertise, and opinions of others.
Festinger proposed that when objective measures are absent,
people rely on social reality to evaluate themselves
(understanding that comes from studying how others act, think,
feel, and view the world).
Children look to others who are similar to themselves.
Sometimes children make downward social comparisons with
others who are obviously less competent or successful to raise
or protect their self-esteem.
This explains why some students in elementary school have
very high self esteem in spite of the fact that are in special
education classes






Big fish in a small pond
210
Erikson’s :Industry vs Inferiority

According to Erik Erikson, middle childhood
encompasses the INDUSTRY-VERSUS-INFERIORITY
STAGE, the period from ages 6 to 12 characterized by a
focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the
challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the
other complexities of the modern world.
211
Industry vs Inferiority….
 Success in this stage is evidenced by feelings of
mastery, proficiency, and confidence.
 Difficulties lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy,
and to withdrawal from academics and socialization
with peers
 Attaining a sense of industry during middle childhood
has lasting consequences!
 High levels of childhood industry associated with adult
success (more so than intelligence and family background!)
212
Self esteem: Evaluating the self


Children evaluate themselves in terms of physical and psychological
characteristics, but they also think of themselves as being good or
bad (involves emotions)
SELF-ESTEEM, an individual's overall and specific positive and
negative self-evaluation, develops in important ways during middle
childhood.
213
Self esteem develops in important ways during middle
childhood…




Children increasingly compare themselves to others.
Children are developing their own internal standards.
Self-esteem, for most children, increases during middle
childhood.
Children with low self-esteem may become enmeshed in a
cycle of failure that is difficult to break.
214
A cycle of Low Self-Esteem
If a child has low self-esteem
and expects to do poorly on a
test, she may experience
anxiety and not do as well,
which confirms the negative
self view. Parents can break
this cycle a warm and
supportive style.
215
Relationships in Middle Childhood: Building
Friendships
 Children’s development is seriously effected by
the formation of friendships in middle childhood
~~ Friendships influence children's development in
several ways.
216
The influence of friendships on children’s development






Friends provide information about the world and other
people.
Friends provide emotional support and help kids to handle
stress.
Friends teach children how to manage and control their
emotions.
Friends teach about communication with others.
Friends foster intellectual growth.
Friends allow children to practice relationship skills
217
During the middle childhood period, children’s
ideas about friendship undergo changes…
According to developmental psychologist William Damon,
children's friendships go through three stages:
Stage 1 –ages 4-7
Stage 2- ages 8-10
Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
218
Damon’s 3 stages of friendship
 Stage 1 – [ages 4-7]
 Children see friends as like themselves.
 Children see friends as people to share toys and activities with.
 Children do not take into account personal traits.
 Stage 2 - ages 8-10.
 Children now begin to take other's personal qualities and traits into
consideration.
 Friends are viewed in terms of the kinds of rewards they provide.
 Friendships are based on mutual trust.
 Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
 Friendships become based on intimacy and loyalty.
 Friendships involve mutual disclosure and exclusivity.
 Children also develop clear ideas about the behaviors they seek in
friends…
219
ehaviors favored in friends during middle childhood
Least-liked
 Verbal aggression
 Dishonesty
 Critical
 Greedy/bossy
 Teasing
 Physical aggression
Most-liked
 Sense of humor
 Nice/friendly
 Helpful
 Complementary
 Sharing
 Loyalty
220
What makes a child popular during middle childhood?
Popular children have SOCIAL COMPETENCE, the collection of
individual social skills that permit individuals to perform
successfully in social settings.
Common characteristics of popular children








They are helpful and cooperative.
They have a good sense of humor.
They have good emotional understanding.
They ask for help when necessary.
They are not overly reliant on others.
They can adapt to social situations.
221
Some characteristics of unpopular children





Unpopular children lack social competence.
They may act immature or inappropriately
silly.
They may be overly aggressive and
overbearing.
They may be withdrawn or shy.
They may be unattractive, handicapped,
obese, or slow academically.
222
Personality & Identity
Development
223
Identity: Asking "Who Am I?"
 During adolescence, self consciousness takes center stage!
 Teens focus on wondering “Who am I?” and “Where do I belong
in the world?”
 WHY??
 Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually

Realize the importance of establishing self in society, and
shaping their individuality
 Teens become more like adults physically
 Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely aware of their own bodies
224
Self Concept: Refining Self Perceptions
Self concept broadens during adolescence to include both one's own
assessment of who you are and also includes others' views.



The view of self becomes more organized and coherent.
Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can see
multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at first).
225
Self-esteem: Evaluating Oneself
 During adolescence, teens become
increasingly accurate in understanding
who they are (they develop their self
concept)
 The increase in self-concept does not
mean that they like themselves any better
(self esteem may still be low)
226
Self-esteem is influenced by several factors:

Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls have
lower self-esteem

SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem (especially
in late adolescence when one can buy things of value)
227
Forming an identity during the teen years: crisis or
change?
Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter
substantial psychological difficulties in their search for
identity (“the adolescent identity crisis”)
 Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITYCONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine
what is unique and distinctive about themselves.
228
229
Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE
Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a
dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse".
There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure
identity (or at least have clear career or major goals).





Which job track to follow?
Attend college? Which one?
Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than
adults.
230
What is IDENTITY?
 Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that
emerges during adolescence.
 Identity involves a sense of self-unity, accompanied by a
feeling that the self has continuity over time.
 A firmly established identity also provides a sense of
uniqueness as a person.
231
During Adolescent Stage
 Changes occurs  influence adolescent to find
and form own identity (differs from their
parents).
 Changes that occurs forced adolescent to
“adjust and re-arrange” their lives  formed a
new identity.
 The physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development  its impact and influence on
adolescent.
 Form own perception on self  include peers
evaluation.
232
Approaches in understanding identity
 Involve the cognitive element
 Self-concept
 Involve emotion element
 Self-value or self-image
 Involve personal element
 Questions about self
233
Search for Identity
 According to Erikson:-
 A teenagereffort to make sense of the self is
a:

Part of a healthy , vital process that builds on
the achievement of earlier stages.
Groundwork for coping with the crisis of adult
life.
 A man needs a stable identity before
reaching intimacy, whereas, women define
themselves through marriage and
motherhood ( may be different now).
234
IDENTITY
 Erik Erikson,
 defined identity as a "subjective sense of an invigorating
sameness and continuity," as well as a "sense of feeling
active and alive.“
 According to Erikson's psychosocial model of
development, identity must be perceived by the
individual, but also recognized and confirmed by
others
235
Erickson’s Psychosocial Developmental
Stage
 8 series of stages  begin with infancy and ending
with old age.
 Each stage is named for the particular psychosocial
crisis or challenge that an individual must resolve
before moving to the next stage.
236
Erikson's Stages of Development
1. Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (0-1 yr)
2. Autonomy Versus Shame (1-3 yrs)
3. Initiative Versus Guilt (3-6 yrs)
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12)
5. Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (12-19)
6. Intimacy Versus Isolation (19-25)
7. Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (25-50)
8. Integrity Versus Despair (50 & above)
237
Stage 5:
Identity vs Role Confusion
 Focus on:
 Formation of identity
 Coherent
238
IDENTITY - According to James Marcia
 Marcia argued that
 identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities
and past experiences regarding the self.
 "The better developed this structure is, the more individuals
appear to be of their own...strengths and weaknesses....
 The less developed this structure is, the more confused
individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from
others and the more they have to rely on external sources to
evaluate themselves."
239
 Identity is a dynamic, not static psychological
structure.
 The formation of identity in adolescence sets the stage
for continual changes in the content of identity
through the adult years.
240
Marcia's Identity Statuses
 In Marcia's model, identity involves the adoption of
 a sexual orientation,
 a set of values and ideals and
 a vocational direction
 A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one's
strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness.
 A person with a less well-developed identity is not able
to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses,
and does not have a well articulated sense of self.
241
According to Marcia
 Crisis & Commitment  influence individual identity
status.
 Identity formation  a long term process.
 Choose
 Arrange
 Try
 Push out
 Re-built
 Finally  choose (unique to him/her self)
242
Marcia’s identity formation process
 Foreclosure.
 Diffusion.
 Moratorium.
 Achievement.
 * Not progressive  based on experience and
exploration
243
Foreclosure.
 Commitment without crisis
 Lack exploration of alternatives
 Commitment has been made, but without
exploration of alternatives, identity is not
attained
 Developmentally unsophisticated level of
achievement
 Adopt parents' characteristics
244
Diffusion
 Lack of commitment
 Lack of exploration of alternatives
 Least sophisticated level of development
 Typically the level at which identity formation is
begun
 Do not feel accepted by parents
245
Moratorium
 Active exploration of alternative identities
 Commitment is desired, but it is not yet attained
 Sophisticated level of development
246
Achievement
 Individual has explored alternatives.
 Commitment is at a high level
 According to individual's in this status, "The parts of my self
feel as though they have finally come together." ( Archer,
1990 ).
 Most developmentally sophisticated status of identity
formation.
 Perceive parents as supportive
247
SUMMARY ON MARCIA’S
248
Identity Confusion
 Identity problem
 Autonomy problem
 Attachment problem
 Sexuality problem
 Achievement problem
249
Social Influence in Identity Formation
 Family
 Discipline & relationship
 Environment
 Socio-cultural
 Diet
 Education
 Peers
 Status symbol
 Mass media
250
Beginning of Career Choice
 Career choice begin early:
 Personal experience:




Watching parents/neighbours
Adult conversation
Role Play
Temporary/part-time work
 Early experience  adolescent learn  will continue
developing career towards their interest.
 However  career choice may change with maturity.
Stages in Career Development
 Since the age of 10  a child stars to think what they
want to be when they grow up  will continue until 24
yrs old.
 Pre adolescent period Career choice are based on
 Fantasy/Dream
 Excitement/Adventure
 Not on their ability
Stages in Career Development
 Early & middle adolescent  choice of career change
according to their interest, ability and their values.
 Late adolescent & early adult  able to make a correct
choice according to own ability, experience and
knowledge.
 Choice of career are more clearer and
establish after succeeded entering
college/higher learning institutions.
Theories in Career
Choice/Development
Ginzberg
Holland
Ginzberg’s Career Choice
Theory
 Ginzberg (1972) suggested 3 stages people move through in
choosing a career.



Fantasy (11 & below)
Tentative (11-17 yrs. old)
Realistic (17/18 & above)
Stage 1: Fantasy
 Choice of career (ambitions) are made based on:
 Excitement & interesting
 Emotions & not practicality
 Child perceptions
* Fantasy period – the period of life when career choices are
made – and discarded – without regard to skills, abilities, or
available job opportunities
Stage 2: Tentative
 Focus  on self
 Career choice based on 4 aspects:
 Interest (11-12 years old)
 Capasity (13-14 years old)
 Values (15-16 years old)
 Transition (16-17 years old)
 Early adolescent  interest play a major role but as they grow
older  more matured  start thinking about their ability.
 Integration between interest and ability  from the value
system.
* Tentative period- the second stage which spans adolescence, in
which people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the
requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit
with those requirements
Stage 3: Realistic
 Focus on career opportunity and market
demand.
 Starts reviewing their aspiration, needs & interest,
their ability and occupational work demand.
 Choice are also made based on:
 Experience & achievement so far.
 Family influences
 Personal job influence
 Realistic period – the stage in late adolescence and
early adulthood during which people can explore
career options through job experience or training,
narrow their choices, and eventually make a
commitment to career
John Holland Personality –Type Theory
 According to Holland (1959):
 Individual personality influences a person
choice of career .
 6 types of basic personaliti  6 types of basic
occupations
 Only certain types of occupation suits a
specific personality.
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
 Personalities & basic environment:
 Realistic
 Investigative
 Conventional
 Enterprising
 Artistic
 Social
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
 Realistic – down-to earth, practical problem solvers,
physically strong, mediocre social skills
 Intellectual/Investigative – theoretical and abstract
orientation, not particularly good with people
 Conventional – prefer highly structured tasks
 Enterprising – risk takers and take-charge types, good
leaders
 Artistic – use art to express themselves and prefer the
world of art to interactions with people
 Social – verbal skills and interpersonal relations are
strong, good at working with people
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
YOUR Type of
PERSONALITY
•Realistic
•Investigative
•Conventional
•Enterprising
•Artistic
•Social
Type of Suitable JOB
environment
Suits
•
•
•
•
•
•
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Social
Potential to
succeed
Investigative/Intellectual
 Like to investigate  suitable to an abstract type of
occupation, intellectual and scientific.
Individual Characteristic
•Clever
•Analytical
•Independent
•Rasional
•Curious
Type of Occupation
•Mathematicians
•Chemist
•Biologist
•Physicist
 Not interested in Enterprising type of work
Realistic
 Prefer job in an objective environment  does not
involve good communication skills, involves physical &
related to technical and farming.
 Fav. type of work characteristics  relate to machine,
equipment, nature & athletic.
Individual Characteristic
•Mechanical
•Aggresive
•Strong/athletic
•Stuborn
•Stern
Type of Occupation
•Mechanic
•Rangers
•Carpenter
•Farmers
•Contracters
•athletics
 Not interested in work related to Social
Convensional
 Career choice  involve community support but does not
involve lot of thinking Suitable in concrete and
predictable envirobnment. Prefer routine and structural
type of work.
Individual Characteristic
•Specific/precise
•Ordarly
•Practical
•Effisyen
•Careful
Not
interested in artistic
Type of Occupation
•Accountant
•Proof-reader
•Statistician
•Secretary
type of work
Enterprising
 Suitable in an adventurous, energizing and challenging work
environment. Have an empowering and extrovert personality,
and loves power.

Individual Characteristic
•Coherent
•Aggresive
•Ambitious
•Confidence
Not
interested in
•Controlling
realistic type of work
Type of Occupation
•Sales person
•Politician
•Businessman
•Legal/law
•Evangelism
Artistic
 Suitable in an artistic  arts and designing environment 
able to express their creativity.
Individual Characteristic
•Independent
•Creative
•Non-conformist
•Abstract
•Idealistic
Type of Occupation
•Musician
•Artist/sculpture
•Dancer/singer
•Acting
•Others  related to art
 Not interested in conventional type of work.
Social
 Prefer job related to the social, administrative or treating
environment.  ability in communication and interpersonal
relationship.
Individual Characteristic
•Cooperative
•Tolerant
•Social
•Empathy
•Understanding
Type of Occupation
•Teaching
•Counselor
•Social work
•Psychologist/ psychiatrist
•Nurse/doctor
 Not interested in realistic type of occupation.
Is Language Development important?
 Language Development is important because:
 Through language  children interact
 Language development  very much related to intellectual
development
 Through language  children are able to progress in other
developmental domain.
 Language is a law of grammar and semantic that makes
conversation more meaningful.
 Covers ways of communication  where thoughts and
emotions are being expressed  in order to convey
message/meaning to others
Forms of communication
 Writing
 Conversation (verbal)
 Sign Language
 Body/hand gestures
 Facial expression
Language can be divided into:
 Non-verbal (Understanding)
◦ Hand/body gestures
◦ Symbolic understanding
◦ Understand what others said (Baby understand what being said although
he’s still not able to talk yet)
 Verbal
◦ Sound/Words are being said to convey message/ meaning  involves the
coordination of articulation organs (voice box, trachea, tongue, cheek, lips
& palate)
◦ Understanding of meaning and sound being said occurs simultaneously
Stages of language development in
children
 Pre-linguistic speech (pre-conversation)
 Linguistic speech (conversation)
Pre-linguistic speech (pre-conversation)
 Baby’s ability to understand and convey a message, thou’ he/she is not able to
talk yet
 Crying
 Cooing & Babbling
Cooing (6-8 mths) – mostly vowels sound (aaaa, uuuuu, oooo….)
 Babbling (9-18 mths) – comprising of consonant and vowel sounds
(BA, MA, ga, pa…)
 Becoming a communicator

 Infant & adult follow each other’s gaze
 This will speed up language development
 Simple infant game  pat-a- cake/ peekaboo  demonstrate conventional turn
taking.
 At the end of the first year  infants use preverbal gestures to influence the
behavior of others.
 Body Gestures
Protodeclarative action
 Protoimperative action
 Facial expressions  convey message of emotions

Early Language development
 First word: One-word utterance - (18-24 mths)
 Limited in both vowels & consonant – single word (BALL, DAD, HIT….)
Children first words usually refer to important people, objects that
move, familiar actions or outcomes of familiar actions.
 Emotions also influence early word learning.
 Two-word Utterance phase and telegraphic speech (24-30 mths)
 Simple sentence (BAD DOG, Want food, Me hungry…).
 Young toddlers add words to their vocabularies slowly (1-3 words a
month) but after this stage a spurt of vocabularies occurs10-20 new
words a week.
 Telegraphic speech occurs  where in the 2 words utterance phase
toddlers will leave out smaller and less important words.
 Basic adult sentence structure (above 30 mths) – building sentence –
presence of grammatical and functional structure, and continuing
vocabulary acquisition.

Linguistic speech (conversation)
 The physical development & connection of the
sound of language.
 4 component in linguistic development:
 Phonological development
 Semantic development
 Grammar development
 Pragmatic development
Phonological development
 Understanding & pronouncing words
 Vocabulary
 Fast mappingabsorb the meaning of a new word after hearing
it only once or twice in conversation
 The use of metaphor, a figure of speech in which a word or
phrase that usually designates one thing is applied to another,
becomes increasingly common
 A child learn to pronounce  through imitation (repetitive)
 Eg. TV (ivi), Susu (cu), Minum (num), tumpah (pah)
 A deaf child  normally have problem in speaking
Semantic development
 A child learn the meaning of words  then combine
the words
 A child will then try to relate the meaning of certain
words with it’s sound.
 Addition to his/her vocabulary.
Grammar development
 Children learn about grammar  add words to make simple
sentences.
 2 phase:
 The development of simple sentences from basic words.
 The development of complex sentences
 Children start asking questions  thinking &
understanding process is very rapid.
 Intelligent children  use complex and sophisticated
sentences/words
 As age increases  familiarity with words and sentences
increases  able to use, different form of sentences.
Pragmatic development
 Children learn about the aim and how certain words
and sentences are being used in a conversation  use
language efficiently in social context.
 Pragmatics  the practical knowledge of how to use
language to communicate.
 Social speech
 Speech intended to be understood by a listener
 Private Speech
 Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others
 Normal and common in childhood
Language Development Theory
 Language development relates to two theories in particular.
• Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura
 • Nativism/ Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky
Social cognitive theory
 Bandura
 Emphasize that behavior, environment and cognition as
the key factors in language development
 Language is learned and is influenced strongly by
environmental experiences  through observational
learning/modelling
 In the classroom, teachers model the type of work they
want their children to produce  from this children learn
what to do and how to do it.
Nativism/ Language Acquisition Device
 According to Chomsky
 Humans are biologically pre wired to learn language at a certain time and
in a certain way.
 Human brain are pre-programmed  every normal person are able to talk
and understand language.
 All children are born with ‘a language acquisition device (LAD), a
biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain language
categories, such as phonology, syntax and semantics’
 LAD depend on cells in the brain (cerebrum cortex)
 Through LAD children can analyzed language that they hear and able to
construct a proper grammar.
 Supporters of the LAD say that all children will learn some form of language by
a certain age despite how much language input they have received.
Language Development
 Influences on Language Development
 Maturation of the Brain: Cortical regions associated with
language do not fully mature until late preschool years or
later
 Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe, controls
language production.
 Wernicke’s area, located in the temporal lobe, controls
language comprehension.
Language Development
 Influences on Language Development
 Babies learn by listening to what adults say--parents with
lower incomes, educational and occupational levels tend to
spend less time talking with their children in positive ways
 Child-directed speech=speak slowly in a high-pitched voice
with exaggerated ups and downs, simple speech, exaggerate
vowel sounds, use short words and sentences
Language Development
 Preparing For Literacy: The Benefits of Reading Aloud
 Opportunities for emotional intimacy and parent-child
communication
 Children who are read to oftenbetter language skills at
ages 2½, 4½, and 5 and better reading comprehension at
age 7
Language Development in Middle childhood

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax
 As vocabulary grows during the school years, children use
increasingly precise verbs to describe an action, i.e.
hitting, slapping
 Pragmatics: Knowledge about Communication
 Practical use of language to communicate including
conversational and narrative skills

Language and Literacy
Literacy=Learning to read and write

Most children learn to read phonetically by sounding out
words (a, e, i, o, u).




“Rabit it caret” (Rabbit eat carrot)
“Mami is preti” (Mummy is pretty)
“I luv u” (I love you)
Most effective way to teach reading, is to develop strong
phonetic skills plus improving fluency and
comprehension.
What is Moral Development?
 From a Latin word “Moralis”
 A behavior conform to the community norms
 Acceptable by the society
 Awareness about


What is good/bad
What is right/wrong
The word moral covers positive attitude
and attribute:










trustworthy
fair
communityness
polite
unselfish
free
respect others
punctual
cooperate
thankful
 tolerable
 Good natured
 rational
 independent
 loving
 brave
 diligent
 hygienic
 moderate
 Moral development refers to .....
 Values acquirement and awareness about what is right or
wrong  based on code of ethics set by the community
 Moral definition differs (what is good/bad)  depending
on culture & community
 Example: Living together without marriage
Abortion
Sex before marriage
 A moral person
 Able to identify


Good (right) behavior , and
Bad (wrong) behavior
 A person ability to differentiate between what is good or bad
is influence by
 Their ability to understand
 intention
 Society rules and code of ethics
 Values and culture of the society
 This ability is influence by ones cognitive and psychosocial
development
3 Components of moral development
 Affective (emotion)
 Cognitive (thoughts)
 Behavior
299
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Lawrence Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are
based on the premise that:
 at birth, all humans are void of morals, ethics, and
honesty.
 Family as the first source of values and moral
development for an individual.
 One's intelligence and ability to interact with others
matures & one's patterns of moral behavior
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Kohlberg
developed a model of moral
development based on responses to
moral dilemmas.
 Kohlberg theory is based on a person
reasoning ability when faced with certain
isues  at every stages
301
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 According to Kohlberg: Moral development occurs in stages
 Moral development is universal and occurs in 3 main
stages.



Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
Stage 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Each main stage is further sub divide into 2 sub-
stage
Stages in Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
 Sub stage 2: Personal reward orientation
 Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
 Sub stage 4: Law and order orientation
 Stage 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 5: Social contract orientation
 Sub stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
303
Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
 Right or wrong depend on the consequences  influence
by outside factors
 Sub stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
• Main motive  to avoid punishment (How can I avoid
punishment?)
 Sub stage 2: Personal reward orientation (Self interest
orientation)
 Children obey  for the reward (What's in it for me?)
304
Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
 Must obey & follow norms/regulation  set by the society
 Children can accept other people ideas, intention & motives
Sub stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
(Interpersonal accord & conformity – Social Norms)
 What is right  what is being praised or
agreed by
the authority
Sub stage 4: Law and order orientation [Authority and
social-order maintaining orientation] - Law and order
morality
 what is right  what have been fixed by the authority,
according to the rules conducted by the authority
305
Stage 3: POST- CONVENTIONAL
 Adolescent understand the reasons behind the development
of any rules and laws from social contract  compliance by
all
Sub stage 5: Social contract orientation
• Understand the reasons behind the development of any
rules/laws
Sub stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
 Labelling what is right or wrong is based on universal
principle  formed based on respect towards everybody 
regardless of religion or race
 International acknowledgement.
306
Heinz Dilemma

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town
had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but
the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to
make. He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000 for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went
to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal
means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is
half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying,
and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets
desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal
the drug for his wife.
307
Heinz Dilemma

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the
drug for his wife? Why or why not?

From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what
the participant thinks that Heinz should do.

Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the
participant offers is what is significant, the form of their
response.
308
Below are some of examples of possible arguments on
the Heinz Dilemma



Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because
he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a bad
person. Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth
$200 and not how much the druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even
offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else.
Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because
he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine
because prison is an awful place, and he would probably languish
over a jail cell more than his wife's death.
Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because
his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should
not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he
tried to do everything he could without breaking the law, you cannot
blame him.
309
Below are some of examples of possible arguments on
the Heinz Dilemma



Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine
because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal. Or: Heinz
should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed
punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is
owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law;
actions have consequences.
Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because
everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz
should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to
fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his
actions right.
Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine,
because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the
property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the
medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and
their lives are equally significant.
310
311
Adolescent
Physical
Development
312
ADOLESCENT? WHO?
 A young person going through enormous changes
in life:
 Body & Appearances (size, proportion & shape)
 Intellectual abilities
 Adaptation to public expectation about his behavior
 Adolescence is a time of transition from childhood
to adulthood
 Aged 11 -19 years old
313
Western perspectives towards
adolescent development based on:
 Chronological
 Physiological
 Social Responsibilities
 Mental/Intellectual abilities
314
Chronological Aspect
 3 stages of adolescent development:
 Early Adolescent (11-14 years old)
 Middle Adolescent (15-17 years old)
 Late Adolescent (18-19 years old)
315
Physiological
 Focus on :
 Growth & changes (breast, body hair, voice, etc)
 Body composition (body fat, bigger body, chest/ buttock
widen, slimmer waist, etc.)
 Respiratory system
 Development of sexual functioning  maturity,
reproductive organ & functioning
 Growth Spurt
316
Social Responsibilities
 Focused on
 Intellectual abilities parallel to parents and
community expectation.
 Adolescent must be aware of his/her:
 Responsibilities as a member of his/her
community (community have specific
expectation on them)
 How to behave
317
Mental/Intellectual abilities
 Focus on:
 Adolescent thinking skills



Must be parallel to their cognitive
development
Differs from children
Abstract and more complex thinking skill
318
What physical changes do adolescents
experience?
Adolescence is a time of considerable
physical and psychological growth and
change!
ADOLESCENCE is the developmental stage
between childhood and adulthood.

The age at which adolescence begins and
ends is imprecise, partly because society is
unclear about the roles of people in this
stage (no longer children, not yet adults)
319
The Rapid Pace of Growth During Adolescence
 Extreme changes in height and weight are common
 Termed “the adolescent growth spurt”—a period of rapid
growth changes in height and weight
 The rate of growth matches the high growth rate of infancy
 On average, boys grow 4.1 inches in height each year, girls
3.5 inches
 Girls begin their growth spurts earlier (aprox. 2 years) and
complete them earlier
 By age 13, boys are taller on average
320
Puberty: The Start of Sexual Maturation

PUBERTY is the period when sexual organs mature,
beginning earlier for girls than for boys.

Girls begin puberty about 10 - 12
Boys begin at 13 or 14.

321
322
Sexual Maturation
The changes in sexual maturation that occur for males and females during early
adulthood.
323
What triggers puberty?
No one has identified the reason that it begins when it does!




Environmental & cultural factors play a role in
age of puberty.
MENARCHE, the onset of menstruation, varies
in different parts of the world and even with
affluence levels.
More affluent, better nourished, healthier girls
start menstruation earlier.
Menarche age in the US has declined since 19th
century.
324
Onset of Menstruation: The onset of menstruation
occurs earlier in more economically advantaged
countries & in more affluent environments. Why?
325

The development of PRIMARY SEX
CHARACTERISTICS involves organs and
structures of the body related to
reproduction.

SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
involve the visible signs of sexual maturity
that do not involve sex organs directly
326
Body Image: Reactions to Physical Changes in
Adolescence



Body Image involves an adolescent's own
reactions to these physical changes.
Western society's views of menarche have
become more positive than they used to be so
girls tend to have higher self-esteem and selfawareness when they begin menstruating.
Boys‘ first ejaculation is roughly equivalent to
girls‘ menarche, but it is rarely discussed (and
less anxiety provoking than menarche).
327
Early Adolescent (11-14 years old)




Rapid body & Weight changes
Breast development
Eventual onset of menses
Onset of puberty 
 boys will display boys’ characteristics
 girls’ will show girls’ characteristics/attributes.
 Girls reach puberty faster than boys.
 Sign of puberty
 menstruation in girls (menarch) [12-14]
 First ejaculation in boys  12-13 years old (semenarch)
 Rapid Psychomotor development  physical changes,
appetite increases.
328
Stages in adolescent development:
Early Adolescent (11-14 years old)






Girls
Earlier physical changes/
development than boys 
bigger & taller (9-10)
Breast & hip bigger
Start menstruation
Reproductive organ
Ovary functioning
Fats deposited – hip & breast








Boys
2 or 3 years later than girls (1112)
Muscles hard/tougher
Shoulder & chest widen
Skin coarser, active sweat
glands & acne tendency.
Moustache, beard
Voice change- coarse/deep)
Hair in armpit/pubic
Reproductive organ bigger &
functioning
329
Stages in adolescent development:
Middle Adolescent (15-17 years old)
 Stage of challengers & turmoil
 Hormonal & physical change  affect psychosocial
development (life styles)
 Feeling unsure & restless
 Emotional
 Moody
 Physical development leave various impact on
adolescent.
330
Stages in adolescent development:
Middle Adolescent (15-17 years old)






Girls
Body structure  women
Height  slower rate
Voice  sweeter
Acne & weight problem
Body hair (pubic, armpit)
Sexual potency increases






Boys
Body structure  men
Height  faster rate than
girls of same age.
Voice  coarser
Acne & weight problem
Body hair (pubic, armpit)
First ejaculation  without
force/assistance
331
Stages in adolescent development:
Late Adolescent (18-19 years old)
 Time of resolution of body image
 More confident in personal identity
 Appearance Boys & Girls  almost like adult  a lot
different from child.
 Teenage girls may become overly sensitive about their
weight
 (A small percentage of adolescent girls (1-3%) become so
obsessed with their weight that they develop severe
eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia)
332
Stages in adolescent development:
Late Adolescent (18-19 years old)
Girls
 Heightstops growing at
18
 Nearing adult world 
almost complete
 Regular menstruation cycle
 Blood pressure & heart
beat  equivalent to an
adult.
 Red blood cell 
increases/normal
Boys
Height  stops growing
at 21
Nearing adult world 
almost complete
Sexual potential
increases gradually
Blood pressure & heart
beat  equivalent to an
adult.
Red blood cell 
increases/normal
333
The Timing of Puberty

The timing of puberty is a key factor for how
adolescents react to it.
Early maturation is generally positive for boys.




Early maturing boys tend to be better at athletics, be
more popular, have more positive self-esteem, and grow
up to be more cooperative and responsible.
On the other hand, these boys also are more likely to
have school difficulties and become more involved
Early maturation is often difficult for girls.


Early maturing girls tend to be more popular but they
may not be ready to deal with dating situations.
Reactions depend on cultural norms (country and
community).
334
The Timing of Puberty (continued)

Late maturation is difficult for boys.



Smaller boys are seen as less attractive and have a
disadvantage in sports.
These difficulties often lead to declines in selfconcept which can extend into adulthood
For late maturing girls the picture is
complicated.


Late maturing girls can be overlooked and have low
social status at first.
However, when they catch up their self-esteem is high
335
HEALTH RISK BEHAVIOR
&
PROBLEMS AMONG
ADOLESCENTS
336
COMMON ADOLESCENT PROBLEMS
 Hormonal change
 Emotional turmoil  storm & stress (Hall)
 Conflict of interest with parents
 Change of body structure
 Worried about physical changes
 Confuse about the changes
 Embarrassed
 Dietary
 Weight problem (obesity)
 Anorexia Nervosa & Bulimia
 Psychosexual development
 Higher sexual drive  stressful & confuse
 Psychological change
 Aware of gender differences
 Girls often felt afraid/embarrassed/ worried
337
Nutrition, Food & Eating Disorders During
Adolescence







Food and eating disorders become a focus during
adolescence.
The adolescent growth spurt requires an increase in
food - especially key nutrients, e.g. calcium & iron
Several key nutrients are essential during this period,
especially calcium and iron
The major nutritional issue for many teens: eating a
balance of appropriate foods
Obesity is a common concern during adolescence.
The psychological consequences of adolescent
obesity are severe since while body image is a key
focus.
Potential health consequences of obesity are also of
concern
338
Nutrition, Food & Eating Disorders During Adolescence
 ANOREXIA NERVOSA



is a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse
to eat, while denying that their behavior and
appearance, which may become skeletal, are out of the
ordinary.
This disorder primarily affects white women.
These women are often intelligent, successful,
attractive, and from affluent homes
 BULIMIAIs an eating disorder characterized by binges on large
quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through
vomiting or the use of laxatives.


A chemical imbalance results from constant vomiting
or diarrhea.
This can have serious effects, including heart failure
339
Nutrition, Food & Eating Disorders During
….

Adolescence
Eating disorders are products of both biological
and environmental causes so treatment involves
multiple approaches, i.e. Psychotherapy &
Cognitive-behavioral techniques

Dietary modifications

Stress management
340
ADOLESCENT HEALTH ISSUES
 Teen deaths (>80%) ages 15-24 years; 4 out of 5 are
males




Main cause - violence
Accidents
Suicides
Homicides
 Female morbidity
 Pregnancy
 STD
 Running away
 Suicide
 Risk Behaviors
 Substance abuse
 Early sexual experimentation with multiple partners
 Depression
 School/learning problems
 Family problems & Abuse
341
Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being: DRUGS
 The use of illegal drugs in adolescence is very





prevalent and rising.
In 1990's drug use rose, after decline in the 1980's.
Almost 20 % of eighth graders and close to 40 % of
seniors said they had smoked marijuana at least once
in the last year.
More than half of high school seniors have used an
illegal drug at least once in their lives.
ADDICTIVE DRUGS produce a biological or
psychological dependence in users, leading to
increasingly powerful cravings for them.
A major danger of drugs as escapism is that
adolescent never learns to confront original problem
so never learns the problem-solving.
342
Some theories of why adolescents
try illegal drugs exist





Perceived pleasurable experience
Escape from daily pressures
The thrill of doing something illegal
A number of role-models use drugs
Peer pressure.
343
Alcohol Use During Adolescence

Use of alcohol in adolescents and college
students is high!


76% of high school students reported having
consumed an alcoholic drink in the past year in a
study by the Center on Addiction and Substance
Abuse
Binge drinking is a particularly troubling pattern
in college students.


5+drinks in one sitting for men; 4 for women
50% of male college students & 39 % of females say
they’ve participated in binge drinking in the previous
2 weeks
344
Alcohol Use During Adolescence…..
 Adolescents drink because they think it is an adult




thing to do.
Alcohol use gets beyond control for a substantial
number of teenagers!
ALCOHOLICS are persons with alcohol problems who
have learned to depend on alcohol and are unable to
stop their drinking.
Stress may trigger drinking and alcoholism for some
teens
Alcoholism tends to run in families—nature vs.
nurture debate (genetic predisposition or
environmental stress
345
Sexually Transmitted Diseases

AIDS is one of the leading causes of death among young
people!
AIDS (ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME) a
sexually transmitted disease, produced by the HIV virus and
has no cure and ultimately causes death..
AIDS is a SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE transmitted
through the exchange of bodily fluids (usually sexual contact).
It has been difficult to motivate adolescents to use safe sex
measures and change their sexual behavior.








Feelings of invulnerability
Embarrassment
Sense of privacy
Forgetfulness
It is estimated that by the year 2000, 30 million people will be
carrying the AIDS virus
346
Commonly Sexually Transmitted Diseases
 3 million teens (about 1:8) aged 13-19 & (1:4) of those who have had




sexual intercourse acquire an STD every year.
CHLAMYDIA is the most common sexually transmitted disease,
caused by a parasite. More common among teens than older adults. 1029% of sexually active teens & 10% of all teen boys.
GENITAL HERPES is a common sexually transmitted disease in which
is a virus, and not unlike cold sores that sometimes appear around the
mouth. A viral disease that is incurable, often indicated by small
blisters /sores around the genitals.
Trichomoniasis, is an infection caused by a parasite - Infection of the
vagina or penis, caused by a parasite.
Gonorrhea and syphilis used to be deadly but can now be treated
with antibiotics. Gonorrhea -Teens aged 15-19 have higher rates than
older adults. Syphilis: Infection rates more than doubled between 1986
& 1990 among women aged 15-19.
347
Sexually Transmitted Diseases…..
 Adolescents need to be encouraged to practice safe sex
(although only abstinence is the only certain way to
avoid AIDS and other sexually transmitted
conditions).
 Use condoms
 Avoid high risk behaviors
 Know your partner’s sexual history
 Consider abstinence
348
Cognitive Development
 Mental activities
 Cognitive development
 Organisation and thinking process
 Reasoning abilities
Changes in the adolescent stage:
 Language ability
 Ability in making decision
 Memory and reasoning capacity
Piaget’s Theory
 Concrete Operational stage (6-11)  Thinking and
reasoning ability is limited  only to object that can be
seen concretely.
 Formal Operational stage ( 12 & above).
 Hypothesis testing (scientific & matured)
 Understand complex and abstract issues.
 Predict & Planning
 Long term planning
Cognitive Development increases markedly during
adolescence!
~Teens begin to use formal operations to solve problems during
this period of their growth.

Piaget’s approach to cognitive development has had a
significant influence on developmental psychologists.

FORMAL OPERATIONS PERIOD is the stage during which
people develop the ability to think abstractly.

Piaget asserted that children enter this stage at the beginning of
adolescence
Criticisms of Piaget's theory and approach.




Research finds individual differences in cognitive
abilities not universal.
Some researchers suggest that cognitive
development is more continuous, less step-like
than Piaget proposed.
Piaget underestimated the skills of infants and
young children.
Piaget focused only on thinking and knowing,
missing other kinds of intelligence.

Full capabilities of using principles of logic unfold
gradually, throughout early adolescence
(approximately ages 12 to 15).
 But not everyone achieves formal operational skills
(some studies estimate that 25 percent — 50 % of
college students do not).
 Social values/ culture also influence the
achievement of these skills
 Isolation, level of formal education, level of
scientific sophistication in the community
Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive
Development, continued


Information Processing Perspectives assert that one
of the key reasons that mental abilities advance
during adolescence is the growth of metacognition
The growth of METACOGNITION, the ability to think
about one's own thinking process and their ability to
monitor their cognition.
Egocentrism in Adolescent Thinking
Developmental Psychologist David Elkind argues that
the adolescent period fosters adolescent egocentrism



ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM is a stage of self-absorption
where the world is seen only from one's own perspective.
Thus adolescents are highly critical of authority figures,
unwilling to accept criticism, and quick to find fault with
others.
Adolescent egocentrism helps explain why teens often think
they’re the focus of everyone’s attention!
Adolescent egocentrism leads to 2 distortions:
 IMAGINARY AUDIENCE, where adolescents think
they are the focus of everyone else's attention.
 Constructing elaborate scenarios about other’s
thoughts/intentions
 PERSONAL FABLES, the belief that the adolescent is
unique and exceptional and shared by no one else
 No one understands me
 Risk taking behavior
Adolescent Stage:
 More complex thinking process - abstract thinking
 Reasoning ability  based on available principles
 Can compare and debate issues
 Able to think the process of thinking
 Thinking ability of a child and adolescent/ adult differs
 more complex.
Cognitive changes in adolescent.
 Systematic thinking ability
 Cognitive changes gradually
 Development towards formal operation differs
for different individual  their perceptions
towards the world around them is different.
 Issues related to emotions  can hinder
adolescent to think complex issues.
 Implication  can be +ve or –ve
Indicator influencing adolescent cognitive development: Early
adol.
More complex thinking  focused more on
personal decision making (relates to home and
school environment), such as:
a. Home/school work
b. Questions rules, authority, standard in society
c. Giving opinion towards certain topic of interest 
that relates to their everyday chores/living
 Best sports/games?
 Good looking?
 Change rules ?

Indicator influencing adolescent cognitive
development: Middle adol.
Thinking process increases and more developed 
covers issues related to philosophy and the future:
a. Questions asked are more advanced
b. Analysis ability better
c. Think and form own code of thinking (what’s
right?)

Indicator influencing adolescent cognitive
development: Middle adol.
d. Thinking of other alternatives and form own
identity (Who am I?)
e. More systematic thinking style  consider their
goals in life (What do I want?)
f. Think about the future  long term planning.
g. Thinking ability are more systematic  influence
behavior towards others.
Indicator influencing adolescent cognitive
development: Late adol.
More complex thinking process  focused on
personal decision making but less self-centred.
Issues such as:a. Global / advance issues  (justice, history, politics
& patriotism)
b. Form own ideas about certain topics/issues.
c. Like to debate.
d. Thinking  more geared towards career
development.
e. Started thinking about their role in society.

Factors influencing health cognitive development:






Involve them in discussions.
Encourage them to share ideas and opinions.
Help them to set their goals.
Encourage them to think of future possibilities.
Encourage and praise  where appropriate.
Assist them in making decision.
How cognitive development during adolescent can influence
parent-child relationship?
 Changes during adolescent (Physical, social,
mental)  impact on their lives



Social
Physical
Thinking process
 Consequent  Adolescent – Parents Conflict
Disagreement Topics
 Galambos





Responsibilities,
Duties / house chores
Pocket money, dating
Friends
appearance
 Barber






Families,
School
Curfews
Dating
Peers
Sexual behavior
 Tubman  Conflict must occur  as a part of normal
adolescent development.
Reasons for Parents-child conflict
 Individuation period  adolescent set own identity 
different from parents.
 De-idealization  Adolescent are now aware that
parents are not always right/perfect (started to think
what’s logic and what’s not).
 Advance in reasoning  abstract and logical thinking
ability  reasoning ability.
 Are more interested in the concept of JUSTICE,
RIGHTS, EQUILITY. (Thus  can think and questions
rules set by parents)
Conclusion
 Even though conflicts always occurs  but its not
harmful  will not threaten parents-child
relationship.
 In fact, conflict during adolescent is “simply a part
of becoming an adult”.
 Light (1990)  studies showed, some adolescent do





Admire their parents.
Discuss problems with parents.
Seek advise and opinion from parents
Love and feel loved by their parents
Feel treasured and respected by parents.
School Performance
in the Adolescent Years
While cognitive abilities increase, school performance
tends to decline.


Reasons not completely clear—more strict grading?
There is a strong relationship between educational
achievement and socioeconomic status (SES)


Poorer children have fewer resources, lower health, more
inadequate schools, and less involved parents.
The U.S.
had high
graduation
rates, but
those rates
are dropping
compared to
other
industrialize
d nations.
The reasons
for the drop in
U.S. rates are
likely related
to a
combination
of factors,
including the
growing
diversity of
U.S. schools.

High School Graduation Rates




There are ethnic and racial differences in school
achievement but the reason for them is not clear.
In general, African-American and Hispanic students
perform at lower levels than Caucasians and Asians
perform at higher levels.
When socioeconomic levels are taken into account,
achievement differences diminish.
Additional success factors are the cultural value of
school success, attributions of school success, and
consequences for not doing well.
Drop out rates by Ethnicity
375
Personality & Identity
Development
376
Identity: Asking "Who Am I?"
 During adolescence, self consciousness takes center stage!
 Teens focus on wondering “Who am I?” and “Where do I belong
in the world?”
 WHY??
 Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually

Realize the importance of establishing self in society, and
shaping their individuality
 Teens become more like adults physically
 Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely aware of their own bodies
377
Self Concept: Refining Self Perceptions
Self concept broadens during adolescence to include both one's own
assessment of who you are and also includes others' views.



The view of self becomes more organized and coherent.
Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can see
multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at first).
378
Self-esteem: Evaluating Oneself
 During adolescence, teens become
increasingly accurate in understanding
who they are (they develop their self
concept)
 The increase in self-concept does not
mean that they like themselves any better
(self esteem may still be low)
379
Self-esteem is influenced by several factors:

Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls have
lower self-esteem

SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem (especially
in late adolescence when one can buy things of value)
380
Forming an identity during the teen years: crisis or
change?
Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter
substantial psychological difficulties in their search for
identity (“the adolescent identity crisis”)
 Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITYCONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine
what is unique and distinctive about themselves.
381
Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Integrity vs Despair
Generativity vs Stagnation
Intimacy vs Isolation
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE
Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a
dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse".
There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure
identity (or at least have clear career or major goals).





Which job track to follow?
Attend college? Which one?
Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than
adults.
383
What is IDENTITY?
 Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that
emerges during adolescence.
 Identity involves a sense of self-unity, accompanied by a
feeling that the self has continuity over time.
 A firmly established identity also provides a sense of
uniqueness as a person.
384
During Adolescent Stage
 Changes occurs  influence adolescent to find
and form own identity (differs from their
parents).
 Changes that occurs forced adolescent to
“adjust and re-arrange” their lives  formed a
new identity.
 The physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development  its impact and influence on
adolescent.
 Form own perception on self  include peers
evaluation.
385
Approaches in understanding identity
 Involve the cognitive element
 Self-concept
 Involve emotion element
 Self-value or self-image
 Involve personal element
 Questions about self
386
Search
for
Identity
 According to Erikson: A teenagereffort to make sense of the self is
a:

Part of a healthy , vital process that builds on
the achievement of earlier stages.
Groundwork for coping with the crisis of adult
life.
 A man needs a stable identity before
reaching intimacy, whereas, women define
themselves through marriage and
motherhood ( may be different now).
387
IDENTITY
 Erik Erikson,
 defined identity as a "subjective sense of an invigorating
sameness and continuity," as well as a "sense of feeling
active and alive.“
 According to Erikson's psychosocial model of
development, identity must be perceived by the
individual, but also recognized and confirmed by
others
388
Erickson’s Psychosocial Developmental
Stage
 8 series of stages  begin with infancy and ending
with old age.
 Each stage is named for the particular psychosocial
crisis or challenge that an individual must resolve
before moving to the next stage.
389
Erikson's Stages of Development
1. Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (0-1 yr)
2. Autonomy Versus Shame (1-3 yrs)
3. Initiative Versus Guilt (3-6 yrs)
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (6-12)
5. Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (12-19)
6. Intimacy Versus Isolation (19-25)
7. Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (25-50)
8. Integrity Versus Despair (50 & above)
390
Stage 5:
Identity vs Role Confusion
 Focus on:
 Formation of identity
 Coherent
391
IDENTITY - According to James Marcia
 Marcia argued that
 identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities
and past experiences regarding the self.
 "The better developed this structure is, the more individuals
appear to be of their own...strengths and weaknesses....
 The less developed this structure is, the more confused
individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from
others and the more they have to rely on external sources to
evaluate themselves."
392
 Identity is a dynamic, not static psychological
structure.
 The formation of identity in adolescence sets the stage
for continual changes in the content of identity
through the adult years.
393
Marcia's Identity Statuses
 In Marcia's model, identity involves the adoption of
 a sexual orientation,
 a set of values and ideals and
 a vocational direction
 A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one's
strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness.
 A person with a less well-developed identity is not able
to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses,
and does not have a well articulated sense of self.
394
According to Marcia
 Crisis & Commitment  influence individual identity
status.
 Identity formation  a long term process.
 Choose
 Arrange
 Try
 Push out
 Re-built
 Finally  choose (unique to him/her self)
395
Marcia’s identity formation process
 Foreclosure.
 Diffusion.
 Moratorium.
 Achievement.
 * Not progressive  based on experience and
exploration
396
Foreclosure.
 Commitment without crisis
 Lack exploration of alternatives
 Commitment has been made, but without
exploration of alternatives, identity is not
attained
 Developmentally unsophisticated level of
achievement
 Adopt parents' characteristics
397
Diffusion
 Lack of commitment
 Lack of exploration of alternatives
 Least sophisticated level of development
 Typically the level at which identity formation is
begun
 Do not feel accepted by parents
398
Moratorium
 Active exploration of alternative identities
 Commitment is desired, but it is not yet attained
 Sophisticated level of development
399
Achievement
 Individual has explored alternatives.
 Commitment is at a high level
 According to individual's in this status, "The parts of my self
feel as though they have finally come together." ( Archer,
1990 ).
 Most developmentally sophisticated status of identity
formation.
 Perceive parents as supportive
400
SUMMARY ON MARCIA’S
401
Identity Confusion
 Identity problem
 Autonomy problem
 Attachment problem
 Sexuality problem
 Achievement problem
402
Social Influence in Identity Formation
 Family
 Discipline & relationship
 Environment
 Socio-cultural
 Diet
 Education
 Peers
 Status symbol
 Mass media
403
Beginning of Career Choice
 Career choice begin early:
 Personal experience:




Watching parents/neighbours
Adult conversation
Role Play
Temporary/part-time work
 Early experience  adolescent learn  will continue
developing career towards their interest.
 However  career choice may change with maturity.
Stages in Career Development
 Since the age of 10  a child stars to think what they want
to be when they grow up  will continue until 24 yrs old.
 Pre adolescent period Career choice are based on
 Fantasy/Dream
 Excitement/Adventure
 Not on their ability
Stages in Career Development
 Early & middle adolescent  choice of career change
according to their interest, ability and their values.
 Late adolescent & early adult  able to make a correct
choice according to own ability, experience and
knowledge.
 Choice of career are more clearer and
establish after succeeded entering
college/higher learning institutions.
Theories in Career
Choice/Development
Ginzberg
Holland
Ginzberg’s Career Choice
Theory
 Ginzberg (1972) suggested 3 stages people move through in
choosing a career.



Fantasy (11 & below)
Tentative (11-17 yrs. old)
Realistic (17/18 & above)
Stage 1: Fantasy
 Choice of career (ambitions) are made based on:
 Excitement & interesting
 Emotions & not practicality
 Child perceptions
* Fantasy period – the period of life when career choices are
made – and discarded – without regard to skills, abilities, or
available job opportunities
Stage 2: Tentative
 Focus  on self
 Career choice based on 4 aspects:
 Interest (11-12 years old)
 Capasity (13-14 years old)
 Values (15-16 years old)
 Transition (16-17 years old)
 Early adolescent  interest play a major role but as they grow
older  more matured  start thinking about their ability.
 Integration between interest and ability  from the value
system.
* Tentative period- the second stage which spans adolescence, in
which people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the
requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit
with those requirements
Stage 3: Realistic
 Focus on career opportunity and market demand.
 Starts reviewing their aspiration, needs & interest, their
ability and occupational work demand.
 Choice are also made based on:
 Experience & achievement so far.
 Family influences
 Personal job influence
 Realistic period – the stage in late adolescence and early
adulthood during which people can explore career options
through job experience or training, narrow their choices,
and eventually make a commitment to career
John Holland Personality –Type Theory
 According to Holland (1959):
 Individual personality influences a person
choice of career .
 6 types of basic personaliti  6 types of basic
occupations
 Only certain types of occupation suits a
specific personality.
John Holland Theory of Career
Choice
 Personalities & basic environment:
 Realistic
 Investigative
 Conventional
 Enterprising
 Artistic
 Social
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
 Realistic – down-to earth, practical problem solvers,





physically strong, mediocre social skills
Intellectual/Investigative – theoretical and abstract
orientation, not particularly good with people
Conventional – prefer highly structured tasks
Enterprising – risk takers and take-charge types, good
leaders
Artistic – use art to express themselves and prefer the world
of art to interactions with people
Social – verbal skills and interpersonal relations are strong,
good at working with people
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
YOUR Type of
PERSONALITY
•Realistic
•Investigative
•Conventional
•Enterprising
•Artistic
•Social
Type of Suitable JOB
environment
Suits
•
•
•
•
•
•
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Social
Potential to
succeed
Investigative/Intellectual
 Like to investigate  suitable to an abstract type of
occupation, intellectual and scientific.
Individual Characteristic
•Clever
•Analytical
•Independent
•Rasional
•Curious
Type of Occupation
•Mathematicians
•Chemist
•Biologist
•Physicist
 Not interested in Enterprising type of work
Realistic
 Prefer job in an objective environment  does not involve
good communication skills, involves physical & related to
technical and farming.
 Fav. type of work characteristics  relate to machine,
equipment, nature & athletic.
Individual Characteristic
•Mechanical
•Aggresive
•Strong/athletic
•Stuborn
•Stern
Type of Occupation
•Mechanic
•Rangers
•Carpenter
•Farmers
•Contracters
•athletics
 Not interested in work related to Social
Convensional
 Career choice  involve community support but does not
involve lot of thinking Suitable in concrete and
predictable envirobnment. Prefer routine and structural
type of work.
Individual Characteristic
•Specific/precise
•Ordarly
•Practical
•Effisyen
•Careful
Type of Occupation
•Accountant
•Proof-reader
•Statistician
•Secretary
Not interested in artistic type of work
Enterprising
 Suitable in an adventurous, energizing and challenging work
environment. Have an empowering and extrovert personality,
and loves power.
 Not interested in realistic type of work
Individual Characteristic
•Coherent
•Agresive
•Ambitious
•Confidence
•Controlling
Type of Occupation
•Sales person
•Politician
•Businessman
•Legal/law
•Evangelism
Artistic
 Suitable in an artistic  arts and designing environment 
able to express their creativity.
Individual Characteristic
•Independent
•Creative
•Non-conformist
•Abstract
•Idealistic
Type of Occupation
•Musician
•Artist/sculpture
•Dancer/singer
•Acting
•Others  related to art
 Not interested in conventional type of work.
Social
 Prefer job related to the social, administrative or treating
environment.  ability in communication and interpersonal
relationship.
Individual Characteristic
•Cooperative
•Tolerant
•Social
•Empathy
•Understanding
Type of Occupation
•Teaching
•Counselor
•Social work
•Psychologist/ psychiatrist
•Nurse/doctor
 Not interested in realistic type of occupation.