AP Psych Exam Review
Walenga
Research Methods: Important Terms
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Hypothesis
Operational definitions
Variables
Theory
Population
Representative sample
Stratified sample
Random sampling
Sampling bias
Experiments
– Independent variable
– Dependent variable
– Confounding variables
– Experimental group
– Control group
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– Random assignment
– Participant bias/subject expectancy effect
– Experimenter bias/expectancy
– Single-blind and double-blind design
– Placebo effects
– Replication
Descriptive statistics
– Frequency distribution
– Measures of central tendency
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
– Normal distribution and curve
– Measures of variability
• Range
• Standard deviation
– Correlation
• Correlation coefficient
– Positive correlation
– Negative correlation
• Illusionary correlation
– Inferential statistics
• Statistically significant
Ethical Guidelines
– Consent
– Debriefed
– Confidentiality
– No psychological or physical harm
– Use of animals ??
Research Methods
Research Methods
Correlation Coefficient
Indicates direction
of relationship
(+ or -)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +0.65
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Normal
Curve
The mean, median, and mode of a
normal distribution are identical and fall
exactly in the center of the curve. This
means that any score below the mean
falls in the lower 50% of the distribution
of scores and any score above the
mean falls in the upper 50%. Also, the
shape of the curve allows for a simple
breakdown of sections. For instance,
we know that 68% of the population fall
between one and two standard
deviations (See Measures of Variability
Below) from the mean and that 95% of
the population fall between two
standard deviations from the mean.
Figure 8.1 shows the percentage of
scores that fall between each standard
deviation.
Skewed Distribution
An asymmetrical distribution of scores, such as a curve with a bump on the left and
tail to the right or most scores are bunched to the left or right of the mean
• The mean is the largest or the mode or median are smaller than the mean
• The mean is a less useful measure; while the median is more useful
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
90
475
70
Mode Median
One Family
Mean
Income per family in thousands of dollars
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Measures of Variability
Indicate the dispersion or spread in a data set. How much the scores
in a set of data vary from:
a. Each Other
b. the Mean
Tell you if the scores are very different from one another or if they
cluster around the mean.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data.
Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set.
Standard Deviation
Reflects the average distance between every score and the mean. Tell
you how different the scores are from the
mean. Tells you whether scores are
packed together or dispersed. Increase
variability = increase in standard
deviation
Statistical Significance
Results are “statistically significant” when the probability that the
findings are due to chance is very low. EX: If the difference
between two group means is statistically significant, a researcher
would conclude that the difference most likely exists in the population
of interest. If the difference is not statistically significant,
a researcher would conclude that the difference occurred by chance –
possibly because of an unrepresentative sample or
the presence of confounding variables.
“Very Low” means less than 5 chances in 100
or
P < 0.05 level of significance
Biology: Important Terms
• Neuron
– Glial cells
– Dendrites
– Nucleus
– Soma
– Axon
– Myelin
– Axon terminal buttons
– Synapse/synaptic cleft
– Neurotransmitters
• Excitatory
• Inhibitory
– Receptor site
– Reuptake
– Neural networks
• Types of neurons
– Afferent (sensory) neurons
– Efferent (motor) neurons
• Neural Communication
– Resting potential (Polarization)
– Action potential
– Depolarization
– Repolarization
– Hyperpolarization
– Threshold
– All or none principle
– Refractory Period
– Agonists vs antagonists
Neuron Structure
Approx 15,000 synapses per neuron
(DETECT)
(ANNOUNCE)
Neurons do NOT touch each other - the space in
between is called the synapse.
How Neurons Communicate: Action Potential
How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission
Agonist vs. Antagonist
Neurotransmitters
Biology: Important Terms
• Nervous System
– Central Nervous System
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
– Peripheral Nervous System
• Somatic Nervous System
– Afferent (sensory) neurons
– Efferent (motor) neurons
• Autonomic Nervous System
– Sympathetic Nervous System
– Parasympathetic Nervous System
Biology: Important Terms
• The Brain
– Lateralization
– Corpus callosum
– Cerebral cortex
• Frontal lobe
– Motor cortex
• Parietal lobe
– Somatosensory cortex
• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Association areas
– Wernicke’s area
– Broca’s area
– Ablation
– Lesion
– Plasticity
• How Psychologists Look Into the
Brain
– EEG
– CT or CAT scan
– MRI and fMRI
– TMS
– PET scan
• Endocrine System
– Hormones
Hemispheres
 Contralateral control:
right controls left and
vice versa.
 Left Hemisphere:
logic and sequential
tasks; language.
 Right Hemisphere:
spatial and creative
tasks.
Split Brain Patients: Testing the Divided
Brain
Development: Important Terms
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Types of Studies
– Cross-sectional
– Longitudinal
Early Physical Development
– Zygote
– Maturation
– Teratogen (FAS)
– Reflexes
– Temperament
Cognitive Development: Piaget
– Schema
• Assimilation
• Accommodation
– Habituation
– Sensorimotor
• Object permanence
– Preoperational
• Egocentrism
• Animism
• Symbolic thinking
• Theory of Mind
– Autism
– Concrete Operational
• Conservation
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Cognitive Development: Elkind
– Adolescent egocentrism
• Personal fable
• Imaginary audience
• Invincibility fable
Cognitive Development: Vygotsky
– Zone of proximal development
– Types of neurons
Attachment: Harlow
– Harlow monkey experiment
– Contact comfort
Attachment: Lorenz
– Critical period
– Imprinting
Attachment: Ainsworth
– Strange situation
• Secure attachment
• Anxious/avoidant attachment
• Anxious/ambivalent attachment
Attachment: Erikson
– Psychosocial development
Attachment: parenting styles
– Authoritarian
– Permissive
– Authoritative
Moral Development: Kohlberg
– Preconventional
– Conventional
– Postconventional
Behavioral Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
SCHEMA
cognitive frameworks that
organize perceptions, such as
concept of masculine and
feminine
Passive process - dominant
influence during first few
years of life
As cognitive complexity develops,
gender schema theory takes over.
Starting around age 2 ½ , child accurately labels self as boy
or girl, labels genders consistently, assigns occupations,
toys, activities to stereotypical gender. By age 8, schema
for gender is well developed
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Death and Dying
Cognition: Important Terms
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Thinking and Mental Representations
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– Concept
• Prototype
– Schema
– Script
– Mental model
– Cognitive map
Thinking strategies
– Formal reasoning (deductive)
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– Informal reasoning (inductive)
• Heuristic
• Availability heuristic
• Representative heuristic
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• Anchoring/adjustment heuristic
Problem Solving
– Means-ends analysis
– Analogies
– Incubation
– Insight
Obstacles to Problem Solving
– Mental set
– Functional fixedness
– Confirmation bias
– Overconfidence
– Belief perseverance
– Illusory correlations
– Hindsight bias
– False consensus effect
Language
– Syntax
– Semantics
– Phonemes
– Morphemes
Development of Language
– BF Skinner and behavioral theory
– Noam Chomsky
• Universal grammar
• Overregularization or overgeneralization
– Sapir-Whorf
• Linguistic determinism
Mental Representations
Mental Representations
Elements of Language
Development of Language
Memory: Important Terms
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Long-term potentiation
Encoding
Storage
– Sensory Memory
• Iconic
• Echoic
– Short-Term Memory
• Working memory
• Maintenance rehearsal
• Chunking
– Long-Term Memory
• Elaborative rehearsal
• Explicit memory
– Episodic information
– Semantic information
– Hippocampus
• Implicit memory
– Procedural
– Cerebellum
Improving Memory
– Mnemonics
• Acronyms
• Method of loci
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Retrieval
– Priming
– Retrieval cues and retrieval failure
• Encoding specificity principle
• Context dependent memories
• State dependent memory
– Mood congruence effect
– Tip of the tongue phenomenon
– Serial position effect
– Flashbulb memories
Forgetting
– Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
– Retroactive interference
– Proactive interference
– Suppression
– Repression
– Anterograde amnesia
– Retrograde amnesia
– Alzheimer’s
• Plagues
• Acetylcholine
Constructing Memories
– Loftus and misinformation effect
– Source amnesia
– Imagination inflation
(iconic = visual
info)
External
Events
Sensory
Input
Function = info is actively worked on
Capacity = 7 +/- 2
Duration = 20 sec; however, can
increase it with maintenance
rehearsal (conscious repetition of info
either to maintain it in consciousness
or to encode it for storage)
Sensory
Memory
(echoic =
auditory info
Attention &
Encoding
Short-Term
(WORKING)
Memory
Retrieval
Memory = persistence
of learning over time!
Automatic, not attention or interpretation
Function = hold info long enough to be
processed for basic physical characteristics
Capacity = large
Duration = very brief; (visual info - .025sec
/ auditory info = 3-4sec)
Encoding
Long-Term
Memory
Function = organizes and stores info;
more passive form of storage
Capacity = unlimited
Duration =permanent????
Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (Declarative)
knowing you know something
conscious recall
Implicit (Non-declarative)
knowing how to do something
(but not know you know)
without conscious recall
Semantic
Episodic
Procedural
Facts/General
Knowledge
Experienced
events
Skills
Motor/Cognitive
Medial Temporal Lobe /
Hippocampus / Frontal Lobe
Classical
Conditioning
Cerebellum
Interference
Interference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items. One
memory competing with or replacing another memory
Proactive Interference = Something learned earlier disrupts
something learned later.
Past
Present
EX: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes
with ability find car today
Retroactive Interference = Something learned later
disrupts something learned earlier.
Past
Present
EX: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number.
Memory Loss
• Anterograde amnesia – means forward; can’t form new memories.
– Effects of the accident are working forward in time and patient is
unable to remember things that have happened since the accident
• Retrograde amnesia – means backward; can’t remember old memories .
• Hit by a car at noon on Tuesday. Patient regained consciousness
Tuesday night and it is now Wednesday. Patient can’t remember the
accident or anything that happened Tuesday morning before the
accident.
Motivation: Important Terms
• Theories
– Instinct theory
– Drive Reduction
• Need, Drive, Homeostasis
– Incentive theory
– Optimum Arousal
• Yerkes-Dodson law
– Maslow’s Hierarchy o f Needs
• Self-actualization
• Achievement and Work
– Self-efficacy
– Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
– Flow
– Task Leadership vs. Social Leadership
– Industrial-organizational psychologists
• Personnel
• Organizational
• Hunger
– Lateral hypothalamus
• Orexin
– Ventromedial hypothalamus
• Leptin
– Ghrelin
– Glucose
– Insulin
– Set point theory
• Glucose
• Body weight
• Basal metabolic rate
– Anorexia nervosa
– Bulimia nervosa
Hypothalamus & Hormones
Hormone
Tissue
Response
Orexin increase
Hypothalamus
Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase
Stomach
Increases hunger
Insulin increase
Pancreas
Increases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cells
Decreases hunger
PPY increase
Digestive tract
Decreases hunger
The hypothalamus monitors a number of
hormones that are related to hunger.
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Some arousal is necessary
• High arousal is helpful on easy tasks but harmful for difficult
tasks.
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Emotion: Important Terms
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• Stress
Theories
– Stress, Stressors, Strain
– James-Lange theory
– Causes
• Facial-feedback hypothesis
• Approach-approach conflict
– Cannon-Bard theory
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict
– Two-factor theory
• Approach-avoidance conflict
• Transferred excitation (spill-over effect(
– Biological Aspects of Stress
Emotional Expression
• Adrenal glands
– Paul Ekman and cultural expression
• Noripinephrine
– Polygraph
• Epinephrine
Biological Aspects of Emotion
– General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
– Amygdala
• Alarm stage
– Autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic and
• Resistive stage
parasympathetic
• Exhaustive stage
Anger
– Beating Stress
– Spill-over effect
• Perceived control
– Catharsis hypothesis
– Internal locus
– Frustration-aggression principle
– External locus
Happiness
– Learned helplessness
– Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
• Optimistic vs. pessimistic explanatory styles
– Subjective well-being
• Type A vs Type B personality
– Adaptation level phenomenon
• Biofeedback and meditation
– Relative deprivation
Stressor, Strain, Stress
The Stress Response System
The hypothalamus
and the pituitary
gland also respond
to stress (slow) by
triggering the outer
adrenal glands to
secrete
glucocorticoids
(cortisol).
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The Stress Response System
Canon proposed that
the stress response
(fast) was a fight-orflight response marked
by the outpouring of
epinephrine and
norepinephrine from the
inner adrenal glands,
increasing heart and
respiration rates,
mobilizing sugar and
fat, and dulling pain.
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Cognitive Appraisal
Sensation: Important Terms
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Sensory Receptors
Transduction
Psychophysics
Factors that Affect Sensation
– Absolute threshold
– Signal detection theory
– Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)
– Sensory adaptation
– Subliminal stimulation
– Sensory interaction
– Visual capture
Vision
– Light waves
– Cornea, Pupil, Iris, Lens (Accommodation)
– Retina
• Photoreceptors: Rods, Cones (Fovea), Bipolar cells,
Ganglion cells)
– Optic nerve (Blind spot)
– Primary visual cortex
• Feature detectors
• Parallel processing
– Color Vision
• Hue/color (wavelength)
• Intensity/Brightness (amplitude)
• Saturation (purity)
• Color Mixing: Subtractive vs. additive
• Trichromatic theory of color vision
• Opponent process theory of color vision
– Afterimage
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Hearing
– Sound waves
• Pitch (frequency)
• Loudness (amplitude)
• Timbre (purity)
– Outer ear: pinna, auditory canal, eardrum
– Middle ear: hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window
– Inner ear: cochlea, basilar membrane, auditory nerve
– Frequency theory
– Place theory
– Volley principle
– Auditory localization
– Conduction hearing loss
– Sensorineural hearing loss
Smell
– Olfactory nerves and olfactory bulb
Taste
– Taste buds: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami
Pain
– Gate-control theory
– Sensory homunculus
Kinesthetic sense
Vestibular sense
– Semicircular canals
Sensing the World: Basic Principles
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Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest difference
between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time.
– Weber’s Law = regardless of magnitude, two stimuli must differ by a constant
proportion for the difference to be noticeable.
• Light intensity – 8%
• Tone frequency - .3%
• Weight – 2%
– EX: Lemon Lab – if you lemon weighs 6 oz then the next lemon will have to
weigh .12 oz heavier or .12 oz lighter in order to detect the difference
between lemon
– JND varies according to the strength or intensity of the original stimulus. The
greater the stimulus the greater the change necessary to produce JND
• EX: If a farmer grows giant lemons, a greater difference threshold will be
needed to determine a change from a 500 oz lemon, such as a change of
10 oz versus .12 oz with a 6 oz lemon.
Sensing the World: Basic Principles
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Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest
difference between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time.
– Fechner’s Law – larger and larger increases in stimulus intensity are
required to produce perceptible increments in the magnitude of
sensation. Constant increments in stimulus intensity produce smaller
and smaller increases in perceived magnitude of sensation.
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Scene #1: dark room – add one light bulb – difference in light is striking
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Scene #2: same room – add a second light bulb – the amount of light is
doubled but the room does not seem twice as bright
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Scene #3: same room – add a third light bulb, it adds just as much light as
the second, but you barely notice the difference
– Three equal increases in stimulus intensity produces progressively
smaller differences in the magnitude of sensation
Visual Processing: light waves cornea pupil (iris) lens retina (rods and
cones – trichromatic theory bipolar ganglion – start of opponent process)
optic nerve (blind spot) thalamus occipital lobe (visual cortex – end of
opponent process) feature detectors abstraction (cells in parietal and
temporal lobe combine info from feature detectors) PERCEPTION
Theories of Color Vision: Trichromatic Theory
Wavelength Input
Cone
“Blue”
“Green”
“Red”
Signal to Brain
Blue
Equal Parts
Red and
Green =
Yellow
Pitch – high or lowness of sound
• The greater the number of cycles per second, the higher the pitch.
Longer the wave = lower the pitch / Shorter the wave = higher the
pitch
• Frequency – number of cycles per second as expressed in the unit Hertz.
• Hertz – A unit expressing the frequency of sound waves. One Hertz, or 1Hz,
equals one cycle per second.
• Human hearing  detect sounds ranging in frequency from 20Hz –
20,000Hz
Loudness
• The higher the amplitude of a wave, the louder the
sound.
• Amplitude – strength or height of wave.
• Decibel – A unit expressing the loudness of a sound,
abbreviated dB.
• Perceived loudness doubles about every 10 decibels. The
absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as 0
decibels.
Perceiving Pitch
Place Theory (Traveling Wave Theory)
= pitch determined by point of maximal vibration on basilar membrane.
Different pitches activate different places of the cochlea’s basilar membrane.
Only applicable to high pitched sounds – over 5000 Hz
(low pitched sounds do not localize as well)
Frequency Theory
= frequency of a tone (or pitch) matches the rate
at which the hair cells fire or the rate of nerve impulses
traveling up the auditory nerves (i.e., 1KHz tone cause
hair cells to fire 1k times/sec)
Only applicable to sounds under 1000 Hz
(individual neurons cannot fire faster than 1000 times/sec)
Volley Theory
= receptors in the ear fire in sequence. Several
neurons together, firing in sequence, can send a
more rapid series of impulses to the brain than one.
Touch
Sensory receptors located around the roots of hair cells fire when surface of
skin is touched (mechanical and thermal energy).
The sense of touch is a mix of four distinct skin senses—pressure, warmth, cold,
and pain.
Only pressure has identifiable receptors. All other skin sensations are variations
of pressure, warmth, cold and pain.
Two pathways: #1 – signals from thermal receptors + pain signals; #2 – signals
from tactile stimulation (pressure)
Hot = warm ( firing) +cold
( firing)
Wet = pressure + cold
Tickling itch = pressure +
pain
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Sensory Homunculus
Homunculus - Latin for "little
human“; any representation of a
human being.
The Motor Cortex is the area
at the rear of the frontal
lobes that control voluntary
movements. The Sensory
Cortex (parietal cortex)
receives information from
skin surface and sense
organs.
Gate-Control Theory
Spinal cord contains neurological “gates” that
either block pain or allow it to be sensed.
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Small fibers (pain + temp) = open gate =
pain. When tissue is injured, the small
fibers activate and open the neural gate
– Slow pathway – lags a second or two
behind the fast system; longer
lasting, aching pain
– Fast pathway – registers pain and
relays it to the cortex in a fraction of
a second
Large fibers (tactile – pressure or
vibration) = close gate = no pain.
– Stimulate (massage, rub,
acupuncture) gate closing activity to
treat pain.
– Also closed by signals from the brain
– attention and expectations
Endorphins can also close gate
Brain (attention and expectations) also
close gate
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Perception: Important Terms
• Perceptual Organization
– Bottom-up processing
– Top-down processing
– Gestalt laws
• Depth Perception
– Monocular cues
– Binocular cues
• Retinal disparity
• Convergence
• Perceptual Constancies
– Shape constancy
– Color constancy
– Brightness constancy
– Size constancy
• Perception of Movement
– Stroboscopic motion
– Phi phenomenon
• Selective attention
– Change blindness
– Inattentional blindness
– Cocktail party effect
• Observe Characteristics
– Expectations
• Perceptual set
• Context effects
– Cognitive style
• Field independent (sharpeners)
• Field dependent (levelers
– Culture
Consciousness: Important Terms
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Levels
– Conscious
– Preconscious
– Unconscious
Circadian rhythms
Stages of sleep
– NREM
– REM
Functions
– REM rebound
– Restorative theory
– Adaptive theory
– Behavioral theory
Sleep Disorders
– Narcolepsy
– Sleep apnea
– Sleep walking (somnambulism)
– Night terrors
– Nightmares
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Dream Theories
– Psychoanalysis
• Manifest content
• Latent content
– Activation-synthesis theory
Hypnosis
– Posthypnotic suggestions
– Posthypnotic amnesia
– Higard’s split consciousness
• Hidden observer
Psychoactive drugs
– Blood-brain barrier
– Agonist vs. antagonist
– Psychological dependency
– Physical dependency
• Withdrawal symptoms
– Tolerance
Sleep Stages
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct
sleep stages. Sleep is divided into two major states: NREM and REM. With each 90minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and the duration of REM sleep increases.
1 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 REM 2 REM
Learning: Important Terms
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Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
– Pavlov
– Unconditioned (UCS/US)
– Unconditioned response (UCR/UR)
– Neutral stimulus (NS)
– Conditioned stimulus (CS)
– Conditioned response (CR)
• Short-delayed conditioning
– Generalization
– Discrimination
– Extinction
– Spontaneous recovery (reconditioning)
– Second or Higher order conditioning
– Watson and Little Albert
– Phobias
• Flooding
• Systematic desensitization
– Conditioned taste aversion
• Biological preparedness
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Operant Conditioning
– Instrumental Learning / Law of effect
– Reinforcement
• Positive
• Negative
– Punishment
• Positive
• Negative
– Primary reinforcer
– Secondary (conditioned) reinforcer
– BF Skinner
– Shaping
– Continuous reinforcement
– Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
• Fixed ratio
• Variable-ratio
• Fixed –interval
• Variable-interval
– Behavior modification
• Token economy
– Overjustification effect
– Latent learning
Observational Learning
– Modeling
– Mirror neurons
– Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study
Intelligence: Important Terms
• Psychometrics
• Galton / Eugenics
• Spearman / g-factor
– Factor analysis
• Sternberg / triarchic theory
– Analytical
– Creative
– Practical
• Gardner / multiple intelligence
• Emotional intelligence
• Creativity
– Divergent thinking
– Convergent thinking
• Mental retardation
• Autism spectrum disorder
• Savant syndrome
• Testing
– Binet and IQ
• [Mental age (MA) / Chronological age
(CA)] X 100
– Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
– Normal curve
– Aptitude tests
– Achievement tests
– Reliability
– Validity
– Standardization
– Flynn Effect
Personality: Important Terms
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Psychodynamic / Freud
– Preconscious
– Conscious
– Unconscious
• ID
– Pleasure principle
• Ego
– Reality principle
• Superego
• Defense mechanisms
• Psychosexual stages: oral stage,
anal stage, phallic stage
(Oedipus complex, Electra
complex, identification), latency
stage, genital stage
– Fixation
– Neo-Freudians
• Carl Jung
– Collective unconscious
– Introvert vs. extrovert
• Alfred Adler
– Inferiority complex
– Birth order
• Karen Horney
– Womb envy
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Projective tests
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Rorschach Inkblot
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TAT test
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Trait Theory
– Gordon Allport
• Central (source) traits
• Secondary (surface) traits
– Raymod Cattell
• Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
• Factor analysis
– Hans Eysenck
• Introversion-extraversion
• Emotional-stability
– Big Five Model: Openness, Cosncientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Neuroticism
– Objective Tests
Social Cognitive Theory
– Julian Rotter
• Internal vs. external locus of control
• Learned helplessness
– Albert Bandura
• Reciprocal determinsm
• Self-efficacy
Humanist Theory
– Self-concept
– Self-esteem
– Self-serving bias
– Carl Rogers
• Actualizing tendency
• Growth-promoting environment: acceptance (unconditional positive regard),
genuineness (congruency between ideal and real self), empathy
– Abraham Maslow
• Self-actualization
• Hierarchyuof nedds
Assessing Traits: Factor Analysis
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Statistical method that finds
relationships among many
different or diverse items
and allows them to be
grouped together
Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor
Inventory
Excitement
Boisterous
Impatient
Irritable
Basic
trait
Superficial
traits
Impulsive
FACTOR ANALYSIS EXAMPLES
1. Charles Spearman, who hypothesized that
the enormous variety of tests of mental
ability--measures of mathematical skill,
vocabulary, other verbal skills, artistic skills,
logical reasoning ability, etc.--could all be
explained by one underlying "factor" of
general intelligence that he called g.
2. Various measures of the activity of the
autonomic nervous system--heart rate,
blood pressure, etc. Increase and decrease
together.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
EX: Keirsey Temperament Sorter
Sympathetic
Appreciative
Tactful
Feeling
Type
Personality
Abnormal Psychology: Important Terms
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Medical Model
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Biopsychosocial Perspective
– Diathesis-Stress Model
Neurotic vs psychotic
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Psychological disorder: atypical, disturbing,
maladaptive, personal distress, unjustifiable
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DSM-IV
– Rosenhan study
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Biological Perspective (brain abnormalities, chemical
imbalances, heritability, drug therapy, ECT, Deep
Brain Stimulation
Psychodynamic Perspective (repression, unconscious•
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conflicts, free association, dream analysis,
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transference, resistance)
•
Cognitive Perspective (irrational thoughts, selfdefeating thoughs, rational emotive behavior
therapy (albert ellis), cognitive theraphy (aaron
beck), cognitive-behavioral therapy
Humanistic Perspective (distorted sense of self,
growth-thwarting environment, client centered
therapy, active listening)
Behavioral Perspective (maladaptive behaviors,
•
counterconditioning (flooding, systematic
•
desensitization, aversive conditioning(, behavior
modification (token economy)
Anxiety Disorders (generalized anxiety, phobias, OCD, Panic, PSD)
– Lack of serotonin and GABA
– Too much glutamate
– Overactive amygdala and underactive frontal lobe
Dissociative Disorders (DID, dissociative amnesia, dissociateve fugue)
– Eye movement desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
Somatoform Disorders (conversion, hypochondriasis, somatization,
pain , body dysmorphic)
Mood Disorders (unipolar – major depressive, dysthymic, seasonal
affective , and bipolar)
– Low serotonin and low norepinephrine = depression
– Low serotonin and high norepinephrine = mania
Ruminating response style; Learned helplessness
SSRI’s, such as prozac, zoloft, paxil
ECT or TMS
Schizophrenia
– Positive symptoms – hallucinations, delusions, disorganized
thinking
– Negative symptoms – apathy, no emotion, expressionless
faces, rigid bodies, social withdrawal, no speech
– Types: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated,
residual
– Too much dopamine or dopamine receptors
– Prenatal viruses
Antipsycholtics, such as Thorazine or Clozaril
Personality Disorders
– Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal
– Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic
– Cluster C: Dependent, OCD, Avoidant
Social Psychology: Important Terms
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Attribution
– Fundamental attribution error (actor-observer bias)
Attitude
– Central route to persuasion
– Peripheral route to persuasion
– Cognitive dissonance
– Foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face technique
– Role-playing (Zimbardo)
Group Behavior
– Deindividuation
– Social facilitation vs. social interference (inhibition)
– Social loafing
– Group polarization
– Groupthink
Conformity
– Normative social influence (Asch experiment)
– Informational social influence
Obedience (Milgram experiment)
Aggression
– Frustration-aggression principle
– Catharsis hypothesis
– Spill-over effect
Altruism
– Reciprocity norm
Bystander effect
– Diffusion of responsibility
•
•
•
Prejudice
– Stereotyping
– Discrimination
– In-group bias
– Self-fulfilling prophecy
– Scapegoat theory
– Just world phenomenon
– Other race effect
Conflict resolution
– Social trap
– Prisoner’s dilemma
– GRIT
Attraction
– Passionate vs. companionate love
– Similarity
– Proximity
• Mere exposure effect
– Physical attractiveness
Fundamental Attribution Error
• How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we
react to it
Situational attribution
“Maybe that driver is ill.”
Tolerant reaction
(proceed cautiously, allow
driver a wide berth)
Dispositional attribution
“Crazy driver!”
Unfavorable reaction
(speed up and race past the
other driver, give a dirty look)
Negative behavior
Cognitive Dissonance
Social Facilitation/Interference
• Linked social
interference and
facilitation to arousal
level
• High arousal improves
simple or well-learned
tasks
• High arousal worsens
complex or poorlylearned task
Presence of others
Increased drive or
arousal
Improved performance
of dominant responses
(social facilitation)
Worsened performance
of nondominant responses
(social Interference)
Group Polarization
example: risky-shift effect
• groups with a tendency to take risks exaggerate risk-taking decisions
• groups with a tendency to be conservative exaggerate safe responses
IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Kaley Schur
Charles Darwin
(History of Psychology)
• Theory of natural
selection influences the
modern evolutionary
perspective
William Wundt
(History of Psychology)
• First psych research
laboratory in
GERMANY; pioneered
the term introspection;
where subjects
reported what was
happening to them
William James
(History of Psychology)
• Prominent in
establishing psychology
in the US. He
emphasized studying
the purpose or function
of behavior and mental
processes
G Stanley Hall
(History of Psychology)
• First psych research
laboratory in the US;
first president of the
American Psychological
Association (APA);
taught by William James
Mary Whiton Calkins
(History of Psychology)
• Taught by William
James as well; Denied a
Ph.D at Harvard due to
sexism; established a
psych lab at Wellesley
and served as first
female president of the
APA
Margaret Floy Washburn
(History of Psychology)
• First American woman
to get a Ph.D in
psychology; best known
for her experimental
work in animal behavior
Sigmund Freud
(History of Psychology)
• Founded the
psychoanalytic school of
thought and developed
the theory of defense
mechanisms, particularly
repression; believed
childhood experiences
influence adult
personality; believed
dreams provided a
particular important
insight into unconscious
motives
John B. Watson
(History of Psychology)
• Behaviorist who
believed the only thing
worth is observable
behavior.
Paul Broca
(Biological Bases of Behavior)
• Discovered speech
production is located in
the lower left frontal
lobe; coined Broca’s
area which
revolutionized the
understanding of
speech production
Carl Wernicke
(Biological Bases of Behavior)
• Discovered that damage
to the left temporal
lobe caused deficits in
language
comprehension; coined
Wernike’s area
Roger Sperry
(Biological Bases of Behavior)
• Best known for work on
split brain patients;
particularly that the
right and left
hemisphere have
specialized functions
Michael Gazzaniga
(Biological Bases of Behavior)
• Continued Sperry’s
work on split brain
patients
Ernst Weber
(Sensation and Perception)
• Discovered just
noticeable difference
and Weber’s law
Gustav Fechner
(Sensation and Perception)
• Demonstrated that
mental processes can
be quantified
David Hubel
(Sensation and Perception)
• Discovered feature
detectors- specialized
neurons in the occipital
lobe that have the
ability to respond to
specific features of an
image
Torton Wiesel
(Sensation and Perception)
• Teamed with Hubel to
expand the knowledge
of sensory processing
and perception
Ernest Hilgard
(States of Consciousness)
• Renowned for his
research on hypnosis
and pain control,
created the term
disassociation when it
came to hypnosis
Ivan Pavlov
(Learning)
• Originally studied
digestion and is famous
for his pioneering work
on classical
conditioning
John Garcia
(Learning)
• Famous for pioneering
work on taste aversion;
his perspective supports
the evolutionary
perspective that being
biologically prepared to
quickly associate
nausea with food or
drink is adaptive
Robert Rescorla
(Learning)
• Research indicated that
the CS must be a
reliable signal that
predicts of the UCS;
furthered Pavlov’s
research
Edward Thorndike
(Learning)
• Conducted the first
systematic investigation
of animal behavior and
coined the term “law of
effect” which simply
stated that satisfying
behaviors are more
likely to be repeated
and vice versa
BF Skinner
(Learning)
• Like Watson, believed in
observable behavior
and came up with
Operant Conditioning
Edward Tolman
(Learning)
• Known for his work on
cognitive maps and
mental
representations;
realized learning is
more complex than
Skinner believed
Wolfgang Kohler
(Learning)
• Studies included a
Chimp named Sultan
who had a banana
outside of cage and a
stick inside, realized
that animal gains
insight; and realized
that that is the “aha
moment”
Albert Bandura
(Learning)
• Famous bobo doll
experiment; monkey
see- monkey do; father
of observation learning
George A. Miller
(Cognition)
• Magical 7 plus or minus
2 in STM (Working
Memory)
Herman Ebinghaus
(Cognition)
• Father or memory
research, known for the
forgetting curve
Elizabeth Loftus
(Cognition)
• Known for
misinformation effect;
key in noting the
weakness in eye
witness testimony
Noam Chomsky
(Cognition)
• Renowned linguist that
noted that children
have an innate capacity
to learn and produce
speech; coined the term
language acquisition
device
Abraham Maslow
(Motivation and Emotion)
• Humanist who is known
for his hierarchy of
needs; believed highest
level is “self
actualization”
Stanley Schacter
(Motivation and Emotion)
• Known for the twofactor theory of
emotion; where
emotion depends of
physical arousal and
then cognitively labeling
that arousal
Hans Selye
(Motivation and Emotion)
• Studied stress and
coined “general
adaption syndrome”
(alarm reaction;
resistance, exhaustion)
Alfred Kinsey
(Motivation and Emotion)
• Pioneering researcher
on human sexuality
Mary Ainsworth
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Did research on the
“strange situation”
(relationship between
infant and mothers) and
came up with the terms
secure and insecure
attachment
Harry Harlow
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Famous for experiment
on rhesus monkeys and
found that touch plays a
key role in developing
healthy physical growth
and normal socialization
Konrad Lorenz
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Studying animals and is known
for his study on imprinting
which is defined as learning
occurring at a particular age or
a particular life stage) that is
rapid and apparently
independent of the
consequences of behavior. It
was first used to describe
situations in which an animal
or person learns the
characteristics of some
stimulus, which is therefore
said to be "imprinted" onto
the subject.
Jean Piaget
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Focused on cognitive
development differs
throughout infancy,
childhood, and
adolescence to
understand the world
(Small People Can’t
Fight)
Lev Vygotsky
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Famous for his belief
that children learn their
cultures habits of mind
through a process called
internalization or inner
speech
Diana Baumrind
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Known for her work on
parenting styles
(permissive;
authoritative;
authoritarian)
Erik Erikson
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Coined the term
psychosocial stages of
development and was
interested in how
adolescence go through
role confusion to form
identity
Lawrence Kohlberg
(Developmental Psychologists)
• Used hypothetical
moral dilemmas to
study moral reasoning
(Pre conventionalConventional- Post
Conventional
Alfred Adler
(Personality)
• Best known for
critiquing Kohlberg’s
theory since all
participant were maleargued woman tend to
focus on caring and
compassion- tend and
befriend
Carl Jung
(Personality)
• Neo- Freudian; who
pioneered the use of
psychiatry in both social
work and early
childhood educationurged patients to
through words such as
self-determination and
courage to alter their
interpretations of life
events
Carl Rogers
(Personality)
• Neo Freudian who
developed the concept
of the collective
unconscious; believed
that the collective
unconscious includes
shared human
experiences that are
embodied in myths and
cultural archetypes
Paul Costa & Robert McCrea
(Personality)
• Went against Freud’s
pessimistic view of
human nature and
believed people are
innately good and are
motivated to achieve
their full potential or
self actualize
Francis Galton
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Came up with the Five
Factor Model of
Personality (CANOE)
Conscientiousness;
Agreeableness;
Neuroticism,
Extroversion, and
Openness
Charles Spearman
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Proposed that
intelligence is a single,
underlying factor, which
he coined general
intelligence of the g
factor
Robert Sternberg
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Known for the triachic
model that
distinguishes analytic,
practical, and creative
intelligences
Howard Gardner
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Disagreed with
Spearman, and
proposed multiple
intelligences that
include linguistic, logicmathematical, musical,
spatial, bodily
kinesthetic, naturalist,
interpersonal, and
intrapersonal.
Alfred Binet
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Invented first usable
intelligence test that
noted the distinction
between a child’s
mental and
chronological ages
Lewis Terman
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Best known as the
inventor of the
Stanford- Binet IQ test;
simply divided mental
age by chronological
age and multiplied by a
100
David Wechsler
(Testing and Individual
Differences)
• Instead of Terman’s
approach, Wechsler
determined how far a
person’s score deviates
from a bell shaped
normal distribution of
scores. Most
intelligence tests use
this system
Dorothea Dix
(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
• Reformer who
documented how poor
and deplorable
conditions were for the
insane poor. Helped
persuade state
legislatures to create
the first generation of
American mental
hospitals.
Albert Ellis
(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
• Known for rationalemotive therapy where
he helped his client’s
dispute irrational beliefs
and replace them with
rational interpretations
of events.
Aaron Beck
(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
• Father of cognitive
therapy- his theories
are used to treat clinical
depression
Mary Cover Jones
(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
• Conducted pioneering
research in applying
behavioral techniques
to therapy “known as
the mother of behavior
therapy”
Joseph Wolpe
(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
• Furthered Jone’s work by
inventing systematic
desensitization- where he
taught his patients to
relax deeply and he then
created situations that
would cause anxiety by
working with minor ones
and then with more top
level anxiety producing
situations.
Leon Festinger
(Social Psychology)
• Best known for his work
on cognitive
dissonance- realized
most people change
attitude when their
attitudes and actions
are inconsistent
Philip Zimbardo
(Social Psychology)
• Known for the Stanford
Prison study- showed
the power of role
playing
Solomon Asch
(Social Psychology)
• Known for line
experiment that
showed the powers of
normative social
influence
Stanley Milgram
(Social Psychology)
• Famous for “shock
study” that showed
that humans tend to be
very obedient to
authority