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AP Government
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and the Declaration
of Independence were all heavily influenced by the philosophies of John Locke, the Baron de
Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These European political scientists were part of the
18th century philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment. Locke, Montesquieu, and
Rousseau were well-esteemed and their insightful writings on man’s rights and government rule
lead to the construction of our own system of government.
John Locke (1632-1704), an English philosopher, advanced the idea that people had
natural rights to life, to liberty, and to property. For almost 200 years, the English people had
been subject to the rule of monarchs that all but ignored any constitutional limitations. King
James II was removed from his throne and replaced by King William and Queen Mary in a
rebellion that became known as the Glorious Revolution (1688-1689). This bloodless revolution
was the impetus for Locke’s publishing The Second Treatise of Civil Government. In it, he
justified the revolution based on the belief that if a ruler broke his obligation to protect man’s
natural rights, then this violation of his social compact with the governed demanded his
replacement by a newly established government. Locke’s logical and persuasive fashion of
presenting the claim that men have natural rights that exist in the state of natural law is the
reason why the doctrine has often been credited to him.
Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755), also referred to as the Baron de Montesquieu became,
legendary for the philosophy he laid out in his book The Spirit of the Laws. In his book he
advocated the separation of the powers of the government into three branches. Montesquieu
believed that individuals in their natural state would avoid violence and conflict. Conversely, he
believes, “as soon as man enters into a state of society, he loses the sense of his weakness,
equality ceases, and then commences the state of law.” Montesquieu recognizes that in order for
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man to satisfy his needs he must associate with others and live in a society run by a government
whose purpose should be to maintain law and order as well as to protect and individual’s liberty
and property. In his book he explained the principle of separating the powers of government into
executive, legislative and judicial branches and his belief that these separations of powers were
the best way to secure freedom for the citizens of a nation.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), born in Geneva, Switzerland, was the author of The
Social Contract which opened with “Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” He
acknowledged that human beings have both material and psychological needs which are fulfilled
by association with one another. The dominating concern Rousseau addresses was “how does
man find a way to establish legitimate political authority where a state can exist that maintains,
rather than constrains, freedom?” The solution he proposed was that man would give up all of his
rights to all the people˗˗the “whole community”˗˗ by entering into a social contract with them.
The whole community decides laws for the “public good” by exercising their “general will.”
Rousseau’s social contract highlighted the idea that the consent of the governed is where all
political power is derived.
Thomas Paine (1737 – 1809), an Englishmen who adopted the American cause as his
own, penned his famous pamphlet Common Sense in January 1776. To convince the colonists of
their need for independence from Britain, Paine focused his attention on attacking the institution
of monarchy. This attack resonated with them in much the same way that Locke’s The Second
Treatise of Civil Government did with his supporters. Rousseau’s The Social Contract states that
“Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” Some colonists were slow to see the chains
that their Mother country was shackling them with their oppressive style of government. Paine
held out a vision of what an independent America can become, a land free of tyranny.
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Montesquieu’s observation that man will necessarily gravitate towards forming a society to
satisfy his physical and mental needs is paralleled in Paine’s musing of how men sequestered in a
small part of earth will connect with one another and form a government. The plain language of
Common Sense delivered words that effectively defined and sustained the American colonist
throughout the Revolutionary War. The colonists’ reaction to Common Sense helped to spark the
writing of the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Declaration of Independence.
The Virginia Declaration of Rights was a demand for American independence from
Britain that was drafted by George Mason in May 1776 and amended by Thomas Ludwell Lee
and the Virginia Convention. The Virginia Declaration of Rights: promoted equality for all men
with the statement “That all men are by nature equally free . . .;” recognized the consent of the
governed is essential for a sound government with the statement “ That all power is vested in ,
and consequently derived from, the people . . .;” established the necessity to abolish a tyrannical
government with the statement “When any government shall be found inadequate or contrary to
these purposes, a majority of the community has an indubitable, inalienable, and indefeasible
right to reform, alter, or abolish it . . .;” emphasized man’s natural rights with the statement “ the
enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing
and obtaining happiness and safety.” The Declaration of Independence expounds on the Virginia
Declaration of Rights with slightly altered phraseology such as “All men are created equal” and
“That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of
the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government . . .” All of these beliefs are
espoused by Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
“We the People of the United States . . .” the familiar first words of the U.S.
Constitution are the embodiment of Rousseau’s belief that there is unity under the general will of
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the people. The first ten Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, the Bill of Rights, were added to
protect the individual’s rights from government interference and possible tyranny. The Bill of
Rights echo the philosophy of John Locke who argued that natural rights, such as life, liberty,
and property existed in the state of nature and were “inalienable,” meaning impossible to
surrender. The first three Articles of Constitution divide the government into three branches:
legislative, executive, and judicial. The Legislative Branch makes the laws, the Executive Branch
enforces them, and the Judicial Branch settles disputes and tries cases involving violation of the
law. The three separate branches of government served to limit and balance the powers of each
other so that no branch could become threatening to the freedom of the people. Montesquieu
thought it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different
powers. That way, the government would avoid placing too much power with one individual or
group of individuals. According to Montesquieu, “there is no liberty, if the power of judging be
not separated from the legislative and executive powers.” Clearly, the Framers of our
Constitution profited from the ideas put forth by the philosophers of the Enlightenment: Locke,
Montesquieu, and Rousseau.