The Protestant Reformation
Religious Conflict and Struggle in
Western Europe (1517-1648)
I.
Pre-Luther Catholic Reformers:
John Wycliff (1330-1384)
• English theologian.
• He declared the Bible to be the
sole source of faith.
• He was the first to translate it
into English in 1380-1381.
• Wycliffe demanded the absolute
poverty of the Church.
Pre-Luther Catholic Reformers:
Jan Hus (1370-1415)
• Born in Bohemia (Czech Republic) /
died in Germany
• Highly influenced by Wycliff’s works.
To Wycliffe’s works he added his
opposition to indulgences.
• Excommunicated twice for his
teachings (1411 & 1412). Burned at
the stake in 1415.
Preparing to Burn Jan Hus at the
Stake, 1415
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
 - “The Church of Rome,
formerly the most holy of all
churches, has become the
most lawless den of thieves,
the most shameless of all
brothels, the very kingdom of
sin, death, and hell; so that
not even Antichrist, if he were
to come, could devise any
addition to its wickedness”.
Luther letter to Pope Leo X
(Freedom of a Christian)
Luther and His Beliefs
• Luther lived in chronic conviction that he was
damned. The means offered by the church to
allay such fears of spiritual anguish – the
sacraments – prayer, attendance at Mass, gave
him no satisfaction.
• He became even more pessimistic after a trip to
Rome where he found the capital of Catholicism
mired in corruption.
Luther and His Beliefs
• From a reading and pondering of St. Paul
(Romans I, 17) “the just shall live by
faith” he discovers that it is not the Church,
but his own individual faith that will
guarantee his salvation.
Luther and His Beliefs
• 1517 – In response to
the indulgences,
Luther posted his 95
Theses on the door of
the castle church at
Wittenberg.
Luther held that, after
confession, the sinner
is freed of his burden
not by the priest’s
absolution, but by
inner grace and faith
alone.
Luther vs. Pope Leo X
"he is richer than Croesus, he would do better to sell St
Peters and give the money to the poor people..."
Luther and His Beliefs
 Luther held that there was no high
church authority to define true Christian
belief. Each individual might read the
Bible and freely make his own
interpretation according to his own
conscience.
 Luther urged Germans to find Christian truth
in the Bible themselves.
Luther and His Beliefs
• He denounced reliance on fasts, pilgrimages,
saints, and Masses. He reduced the 7
sacraments to 2 – baptism and the communion.
• He declared that the clergy should marry.
• To drive through his church reforms, denying the
clergy an influence over them, Luther called on the
princes of Germany to help.
Luther and His Beliefs
 Christian liberty was an internal freedom,
purely spiritual, known only to God. In
worldly matters, the good Christian owed
a perfect obedience to established
authority.
Economic Causes of the
Reformation
1. Middle Class
* Unhappy paying tithe to Rome
* Complained about Church ownership of
land
2. Nobles
* Many converted to Lutheranism to confiscate
land belonging to Catholic Church
* The Catholic Church was the largest
landowner in the Holy Roman Empire: 1/7 of
the land.
Political Reasons for the Protestant
Reformation
• The Reformation added power and wealth to
the kings or the territorial princes from:
1. the Roman Catholic Church
2. the Holy Roman Empire
• Many wanted to gain independence so they
joined Luther’s movement
The Peasant Wars, 1525
• Led by ex-priest Thomas Muntzer
• Causes:
1) Peasants paid two taxes: 1 to their lord and 1 to
the Church.
2) Wanted the abolition of serfdom
• Results:
1) Luther condemned the rebel peasants.
2) Catholics and reformers joined together to crush
rebellion
3) More than 100,000 were killed, maimed, imprisoned
or exiled.
Decline of the Roman Catholic
Church – Cause of the Protestant
Reformation
1.
Corruption, opulence, moral degradation of the Catholic Church
2.
Renaissance – emphasis on secular achievements of the individual
3.
Scientific Revolution – Scientific discoveries challenge the long-standing
teachings of the Church.
4.
Rise of the nation-state and strong central governments in Europe
- Rise of the monarchies
5.
Protestant Reformation
- Luther taught that people don’t need the help of clergy or the
Church for salvation. Salvation comes from the Bible.
Catholic Church Response to Luther
 Pope Leo X accused Luther of Heresy and
excommunicated him.
 Pope summoned Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to quiet
Luther. He summoned him to retract his criticisms at the
Diet of Worms (1521). Luther argued with theologians for
a week. Luther hoped he could convert Charles who
presided over the Diet.
 Luther was protected by Frederick the Wise, Elector of
Saxony.
 While under protection, Luther translates the Bible into
German.
 His ideas, and the German translation of the Bible spread
as a result of the printing press.
Luther at the Diet of Worms (1521)
"Unless I am convicted by scripture and plain reason - I do not accept the authority of
the popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other - my conscience is
captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything for to go against
conscience is neither right nor safe. God help me. Amen."
Charles V (1500-1558)
Holy Roman Emperor
(ruled 1519-1556)
• Charles needed the support
of the German princes
against:
1. France (Hapsburg-Valois
Wars (1521-1544)
2. Ottoman risk from the
East.
Switzerland’s Reformation
1.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
* Established his headquarters in Zurich in 1520.
Beliefs:
* Wanted to create a strict theocratic government in
Zurich where religious values were infused in every
aspect of political and social life.
* Believed eucharist was a sign of Christ’s union with
believers. Luther thought believed that Christ was
truly and symbolically present in this sacrament.
Switzerland’s Reformation
2. Anabaptists
• Believed that only adults had the free will to truly
understand and accept baptism and therefore had
to be rebaptized (Anabaptism means rebaptism).
• They refused to aknowledge the authority of the
courts and refused to bear arms or swear oaths of
allegiance.
Switzerland’s Reformation
3. John Calvin (Jean Cauvin) (1509-1564)
* Born in France but because of religious persecution of nonCatholics, he went to Geneva, Switzerland.
Beliefs:
• No Christian is guaranteed salvation. Believed every person was
predestined to either go to heaven or hell by God before they were
born.
• Calvinists demanded strict discipline from their followers.
• Geneva became a theocratic community where dissent was forbidden.
Protestant Values
1. Encouraged reading the Bible in the vernacular.
2. Protestant reformers set up schools to educate
children in the new religious values.
3. Protestant reformers focused on poor relief.
4. “Protestant Work Ethic” – linked hard work and
prosperity with piety and divine providence and
considered laziness a sign of immorality.
The English Reformation
• Henry VIII (1491-1547) was
originally strongly against the
Protestant Reformation
- Awarded “Defender of
the Faith” by Pope Leo X for
a pamphlet he wrote
denouncing Luther. (1521)
• 1527 – Wanted an annulment of
his marriage to Catherine of
Aragon because she failed to
produce a son & heir to his
thrown.
English Reformation
• Pope Clement VII (Giuliano Medici) refused to give him an
annulment because Catherine was Charles’ aunt.
• 1533: Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of the newly
proclaimed Church of England annulled Henry’s marriage.
Henry married his love, Ann Boleyn almost immediately.
• 1534: Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy making
Henry the “only supreme head on Earth of the Church of
England.”
• Many English Catholics refused to accept the Act. Some
were executed for treason (Thomas More).
English Reformation
• Under Henry, not many changes were made to
Catholic forms of worship. Only changes were:
- he became head of the Anglican
Church
- confiscated some Catholic Church
lands and wealth and gave it to nobles
and other “high-ranking” citizens.
- allowed the use of English in Church
services
The Wives of Henry VIII
Post-Henry Protestant Reforms in
England
• Edward VI (1538-1553), Henry’s only son from wife Jane
Seymour, succeeded his dad when he was 9.
• Edward and Cranmer passed laws bringing minor
Protestant changes. Catholics resisted.
• Edward’s half-sister Mary Tudor (Henry & Catherine of
Aragon’s daughter) succeeded Edward in 1553. She was
determined to return England to Catholic faith.
• Mary’s successor, Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603) (Henry &
Anne Boleyn’s daughter) upheld the Church of England but
preserved much Catholic ritual.
Wars of Religion in Europe
(1530-1648)
1.
Protestants vs. Catholics – Holy Roman Empire
- Lutheran princes formed Schmalkaldic League against Catholic Emperor
Charles V.
- Charles forced to negotiate with Protestants:
a) war was a stalemate
b) Charles bankrupt the budget as a result of his wars
Result: 1555 – Peace of Augsburg
- all princes had the right to choose the religion of their land and people
- the Peace did not include rights for Calvinists, Anabaptists
- Charles abdicated his throwns in 1556.
Wars of Religion
(1530-1648)
2. French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
- 1/3 of French nobles converted to Calvinism during 1540’s1550’s
- August 24, 1572: St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre – in three days, Catholic
mobs murdered 3,000 Huguenots (Calvinists) in Paris.
- During this time France was suffering from weak leadership. In 1589,
Henry of Navarre (Bourbon), a Huguenot became king of France. Henry IV.
- Realizing Catholic France would never accept a Huguenot king, Henry
converted to Catholicism (1593).
- To end the civil war, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes (1598) giving
Huguenots extended freedom of worship. They were allowed to keep their
courts and even their own troops.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre 1572
France, 1550-1598
Henry IV (ruled 1589-1610)
Catherine de Medici (lived 1519-1589)
Wars of Religion
(1530-1648)
3. Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Long-Term Causes:
- (1555-1618) Tensions were still high in HRE after the Peace of
Augsburg. Lutherans lost some cities back to
Catholics and Calvinists.
- New Catholic Emperor Ferdinand, crowned king of Bohemia in
1617, curtailed Protestant religious rights. 2 years later he became
Holy Roman Emperor.
Short-Term Cause:
- May, 1618: two Catholic deputies were thrown out of a castle
window in Prague by angry Protestants.
Wars of Religion
(1530-1648)
Thirty Years War (continued)
The First Battle: Catholic victory
- When Ferdinand was named Emperor, Protestant Czechs in
Bohemia refused to recognize him. (1620) Ferdinand’s Catholic
imperial forces defeated the Czech rebels at the Battle of White
Mountain.
Result:
- Battle of White Mountain was a symbol of the Czechs’
desire for independence that they didn’t attain
until 1918.
- HRE helped by Spanish troops and money from the Pope.
Wars of Religion
(1530-1648)
Thirty Years War (continued)
The Second Battle: Catholic victory
- 1625 - Catholic mercenary armies (with the support of
Ferdinand) occupied and plundered Protestant lands.
- Lutheran King of Denmark Christian IV invaded to protect
German Protestants. He was defeated.
Result:
- Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution (1629): outlawed
Calvinism and reclaimed Catholic Church property
confiscated after 1555 (Peace of Augsburg).
Wars of Religion
(1530-1648)
Thirty Years War (continued)
The Third Battle: Protestant victory in HRE / French defeat Spaniards
- Swedish Lutheran King Gustavus Adolphus invaded the northern Holy
Roman Empire in 1630.
- Adolphus received financial aid from Catholic France.
- Swedish forces made it to southern Germany and occupied Catholic
territory. Adolphus was killed in battle in 1632.
- 1635: France declared was on Catholic Spain to help the Calvinist Dutch
gain independence from Spain. Spanish forces at first entered France all
the way to Paris. Then the French turned the tide.
- 1635: Edict of Restitution was rescinded.
- 1643: French forces defeat Spaniards. Portugal gained its independence.
- 1648: Swedish forces destroyed the culturally rich city of Prague. Germans
wanted peace and an end to Swedish and French occupation.
Peace of Westphalia (1644-1648)
1.
France & Sweden insisted that every German state should send a separate
representative.
2.
Updated the Peace of Augsburg to include Calvinists.
3.
Protestants got back lands they originally got at Augsburg but lost in the Edict
of Restitution (1629).
4.
The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist as a unified empire:
- Netherlands and Switzerland broke away
- France took parts of Alsace-Lorraine
- Sweden gained territory in the northern HRE
- over 300 German states belonging to the HRE became
virtually independent
5.
6.
France replaced Spain as the continental European power.
The concept of European unity was dead.
Effects of the Thirty Years War on
Germany
1. As much as 1/3 of the population of 15
million died.
2. Instead of unifying, the German states
fragmented even further.
Europe, 1648
Catholic Reformation or the Counter
Reformation
• The Catholic reaction to the Protestant
challenge.
• Pope Paul III (r.1534-1549) convened a
council to strengthen position of the Catholic
Church.
• The Council of Trent met periodically
between 1545-1563.
The Council of Trent
Counter Reformation – Council of
Trent
• Decisions made at Trent shaped Catholicism until the
1960’s
• The Council rejected the major Protestant positions:
- confirmed the supremacy of the
clergy
- Papal power was not limited. Pope
remained the central authority in the
Catholic Church
- salvation to be achieved by faith AND good
works
Counter Reformation – Council of
Trent (continued)
- upheld the 7 sacraments
- Rejected Protestant claim to find
true faith in the Bible alone
- Latin was confirmed as the official
language of the Bible
- The right of individuals to believe
in their own interpretation of the
Bible over church authorities was
rejected
- Celibacy of the clergy was maintained
- “Correct” practice of indulgences was
reaffirmed
Counter Reformation – Council of
Trent (continued)
- Veneration of saints, pilgrimages,
the use of religious images in
Church upheld
• The Council also:
- Strengthened the Inquisition to fight
against Protestantism
- Inquisition prepared the Index of Forbidden
Books – books banned for Catholics to read
- A new Catholic order was established – the
Jesuits
The Jesuits
• Founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)
•
•
•
•
Spiritual and moral discipline
Rigorous religious training
Absolute obedience to the Church
Set up schools that taught humanist and Catholic
beliefs
• Missionary work spread Catholic faith to Asia,
Africa and the Americas.
Churches: Lutheran
Churches: Calvinist
Churches: Anabaptist
Churches: Roman Catholic
Churches: Russian Orthodox