BIO201 – Anatomy and
Physiology I
Introduction
Chemistry review
Kamal Gandhi
Lecture 1
Goals of the class
• Describe the physiology of cells and cell membranes, including
membrane transport processes.
• Explain the structure and function of skin, epithelial membranes,
and connective tissue membranes.
• Describe the process of bone formation, growth and function.
• Identify bones and joints of the human skeleton.
• Explain how muscles contract.
• Describe mechanisms of signal transduction by the nervous system,
including action potentials and synaptic transmission.
• Describe the anatomy and physiology of the central and peripheral
nervous system.
• Explain how the special senses operate.
Keys to Success
•
•
•
•
Attend class and lab
Take notes during lecture
Review notes and read chapter on off days
Ask questions when you don’t understand
something
• Make an appointment for office hours
• Draw Draw Draw … schematics are very helpful
• Don’t fall behind … course covers lots of
information
Biology – the study of Life
Atoms
Molecules
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
Organisms
Colony
Community
Environment
Ecosystem
Atoms
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Molecule
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar
types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.
6 Organismal level
The human organism is made up
of many organ systems.
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
Figure 1.1
Hair
Skin
Nails
(a) Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Figure 1.3a
Bones
Joint
(b) Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
Figure 1.3b
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
Figure 1.3c
Brain
Spinal
cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
Figure 1.3d
Pineal gland
Pituitary
gland
Thyroid
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas
Testis
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes such as growth, reproduction,
and nutrient use (metabolism) by body
cells.
Figure 1.3e
Heart
Blood
vessels
(f) Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.
Figure 1.3f
Red bone
marrow
Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct
Spleen
Lymph
nodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris
in the lymphatic stream. Houses white
blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
immunity. The immune response mounts
the attack against foreign substances
within the body.
Figure 1.3g
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Lung
(h) Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Figure 1.3h
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
(i) Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable
units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells. Indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Figure 1.3i
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
(j) Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte and
acid-base balance of the blood.
Figure 1.3j
Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Prostate
gland
Ovary
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Ductus
deferens
Uterus
Vagina
Uterine
tube
(l) Female Reproductive System
(k) Male Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Figure 1.3k-l
Homeostasis
• “primary goal” of the body in functioning
• Maintaining a relatively stable state throughout the
body, despite internal and external variances
• Metabolism: all the chemical reactions and physical
processes that take place within the body
• Actively vary metabolism to return to “normal” state
• Positive feedback loop: downstream response induces
an increase in the causative stimulus
• Negative feedback loop: downstream response induces
a decrease in the causative stimulus
Quick note …
• Typically, each lecture will cover one (part of)
a system, and they will be covered in a defined
order
• For anatomy purposes, though, there are
some things that you can prepare for now
• Learn terms for positions of the body
• Learn all the bones
• Learn the major muscles
Frontal plane
Median (midsagittal) plane
Transverse plane
(a) Frontal section
(through torso)
(b) Transverse section
(through torso,
inferior view)
Pancreas
(c) Median section
(midsagittal)
Aorta
Spleen
Left and
Liver Heart Spleen
right lungs
Stomach
Arm
Liver
Spinal cord
Body wall
Subcutaneous fat layer
Intestines
Rectum
Vertebral
column
Figure 1.8
Cranial
cavity
Cranial
cavity
(contains
brain)
Dorsal
body
cavity
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Vertebral
cavity
Superior
mediastinum
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Diaphragm
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Vertebral
cavity
(contains
spinal
cord)
(a) Lateral view
Ventral body
cavity
(thoracic and
Abdomino- abdominopelvic
pelvic
cavities)
cavity
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
(b) Anterior view
Figure 1.9a-b
Right
Epigastric
hypochondriac
region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Right iliac Hypogastric
(inguinal) (pubic)
region
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Left
lumbar
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
Liver
Diaphragm
Gallbladder
Stomach
Ascending colon of
large intestine
Transverse colon
of large intestine
Small intestine
Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.12
Anatomical terminology
Bones of the skeleton …
Head
Temporalis
Masseter
Shoulder
Trapezius
Deltoid
Arm
Triceps brachii
Biceps brachii
Brachialis
Forearm
Pronator teres
Brachioradialis
Flexor carpi radialis
Palmaris longus
Pelvis/thigh
Iliopsoas
Pectineus
Thigh
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Leg
Fibularis longus
Extensor digitorum longus
Tibialis anterior
Facial
Epicranius, frontal belly
Orbicularis oculi
Zygomaticus
Orbicularis oris
Neck
Sternohyoid
Platysma
Sternocleidomastoid
Thorax
Pectoralis minor
Serratus anterior
Pectoralis major
Intercostals
Abdomen
Rectus abdominis
Internal oblique
Transversus abdominis
External oblique
Thigh
Tensor fasciae latae
Sartorius
Adductor longus
Gracilis
Leg
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Figure 10.4
Arm
Triceps brachii
Brachialis
Forearm
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi
radialis longus
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Extensor carpi
ulnaris
Extensor digitorum
Iliotibial tract
Leg
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Fibularis longus
Calcaneal
(Achilles) tendon
Neck
Epicranius, occipital belly
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Shoulder
Deltoid
Infraspinatus
Teres major
Rhomboid major
Latissimus dorsi
Hip
Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus
Thigh
Adductor magnus
Hamstrings:
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Figure 10.5
Chemistry Review
• Life exists in two forms: matter and energy
• To understand the anatomy and physiology of
the body, you need to understand some basics
of chemistry, the study of matter
Matter
• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space
• It exists in a variety of forms
• Element: the simplest form of matter; a chemical that
cannot be further divided without losing its properties
• Atom: the smallest unit of an element
• Molecule: a combination of two or more atoms
• Compound: a combination of two or more different
elements; produces a chemical with different properties
than the elements that make it up
• H vs H2 vs H2O
Fig. 2-3
Sodium
Chlorine
Sodium
chloride
Elements
• Of the 96 naturally occurring elements, about
25 are essential to life
• 96% of the body is made up of 4 elements:
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
• The rest of the body is made up of
phosphorus, sulfur, and several ions
• The SPONCH elements are the building blocks
of the 4 biological macromolecules that make
up all cells
Table 2-1
Atoms
• An atom is the smallest unit of an element
• i.e. it cannot be further divided without losing the
properties of that element
• An atom can be divided into its building blocks
– Protons: +1 mass, +1 charge, found in nucleus
– Neutrons: +1 mass, 0 charge, found in nucleus
– Electrons: 0 mass, -1 charge, hovers around nucleus
Nucleus
Nucleus
Helium atom
Helium atom
2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e–)
2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e–)
(a) Planetary model
Proton
Neutron
(b) Orbital model
Electron
Electron
cloud
Figure 2.1
Atoms and elements
• An atom is defined by the number of building
blocks it contains
• The number of protons determines the type of
element that you have (e.g. all Carbon atoms
have 6 protons)
• The number of neutrons determines the isotope
of the element that you have (12C vs 14C have 6 or
8 neutrons)
• The number of electrons determines the charge
of the element, and is important for molecule
formation
Atoms
• Atomic number
– Number of protons
– Determines the type of element
• Atomic mass/weight
– Number of protons + number of neutrons
– Different versions of elements have different atomic
masses (isotopes)
• Atomic charge
– Number of protons – number of electrons
– In an inert element, number of protons = electrons
Electrons
• Electrons typically hover around the nucleus,
and are in a constant state of motion
• They hover in specific regions called orbitals
• Each orbital shell wants to pair up electrons
until the shell is full
• An atom is “happiest” with a full outer shell
(typically 8 electrons for the elements
concerned with life)
• To achieve a full outer shell, electrons form
bonds
Fig. 2-9
Hydrogen
1H
Atomic mass
First
shell
2
He
4.00
Atomic number
Helium
2He
Element symbol
Electrondistribution
diagram
Lithium
3Li
Beryllium
4Be
Boron
5B
Carbon
6C
Nitrogen
7N
Oxygen
8O
Fluorine
9F
Neon
10Ne
Sodium
11Na
Magnesium
12Mg
Aluminum
13Al
Silicon
14Si
Phosphorus
15P
Sulfur
16S
Chlorine
17Cl
Argon
18Ar
Second
shell
Third
shell
Molecules
• Very few elements are functional in the body
in their inert, unchanged form
• Most elements, instead, are found as ions or
as parts of molecules
• A molecule is the result of two or more atoms
being bound together
• Atoms form bonds in order to complete their
valence shell of electrons
Fig. 2-11
Hydrogen
atoms (2 H)
Hydrogen
molecule (H2)
Chemical bonds
• Molecules form bonds to fill their outer
(valence) shell
• There are different types of bonds that can be
formed, based on the type of element and
how many electrons it needs to fill the outer
shell
Covalent bonds
• Covalent bonds are the strongest type of
chemical bond, where two atoms are joined
together
• This happens when two atoms share a pair of
electrons
• Common with elements in the middle of the
periodic table
• Because the pair is being shared, the two atoms
remain stuck together, and a lot of energy is
required to break up this bond
Figure 2.8a
Figure 2.8b
Ionic bond
• Ionic bonds are a strong interaction between two
atoms as a result of a charge difference
• This happens when one atom donates its electron
to another atom
• Common for the edges of the periodic table
• Because one atom loses an electron, it has less
electrons than protons, and so has a + charge
(cation)
• The other atom will have more electrons than
protons, and so will have a – charge (anion)
Fig. 2-14-2
Na
Na
Sodium atom
Cl
Na
Cl
Cl
Chlorine atom
Na+
Sodium ion
(a cation)
Cl–
Chloride ion
(an anion)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Fig. 2-15
Na+
Cl–
Hydrogen bond
• A weak interaction between a polar H and a
polar O or N from another molecule
• Because N and O form polar bonds with H,
this creates partially charged atoms
• A polar H (with a partial + charge) will form a
bond with a polar O or N (with a partial –
charge)
• Individually, these interactions are weak; but
millions of them can be very powerful
Fig. 2-16

+
Water (H2O)
+
Hydrogen bond

Ammonia (NH3)
+
+
+
Van der Waals interactions
• Some molecules form weak interactions
because of their “dislike” of other molecules
• For example, non-polar molecules tend to
dislike water, and will therefore cluster
together
• E.g. fats don’t mix with water, but form
insoluble globules
• Can be broken up fairly easily with a little
energy
SPONCH
• The 6 SPONCH elements are vital for the
formation of biological macromolecules
because of their chemical bonding abilities
• S
• P
• O
• N
• C
• H
Water
• The most important molecule for life to exist is
water
• Because of the polarity of water, it has
chemical properties that make it essential for
life
– Adhesive/cohesive
– Stabilizes temperature
– Expands upon freezing
– Dissolves all “like” molecules (charged/polar)
• Therefore, water is the universal solvent of life
Fig. 3-2
–
Hydrogen
bond
+
H
+
O
–
–
+
H
+
–
Fig. 3-3
Adhesion
Water-conducting
cells
Direction
of water
movement
Cohesion
150 µm
Fig. 3-4
Fig. 3-5
Los Angeles
(Airport) 75°
70s (°F)
80s
San Bernardino
100°
Riverside 96°
Santa Ana
Palm Springs
84°
106°
Burbank
90°
Santa Barbara 73°
Pacific Ocean
90s
100s
San Diego 72°
40 miles
Fig. 3-6a
Hydrogen
bond
Ice
Hydrogen bonds are stable
Liquid water
Hydrogen bonds break and re-form
Fig. 3-7
–
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
Cl–
+
+
Na +
+
–
Cl–
–
Na +
–
+
–
–
Fig. 3-8
(a) Lysozyme molecule in a
nonaqueous environment
(b) Lysozyme molecule (purple) in an aqueous
environment
(c) Ionic and polar regions
on the protein’s surface
attract water molecules.
Carbon
• Carbon is the universal backbone of biological
molecules
• Because of its tetravalent outer shell, carbon
requires four more electrons
• It gets these by making 4 covalent bonds
(includes double and triple bonds)
• Therefore, you can form large molecules with
Carbon as a backbone
Fig. 4-3
Name
(a) Methane
(b) Ethane
(c) Ethene
(ethylene)
Molecular
Formula
Structural
Formula
Ball-and-Stick
Model
Space-Filling
Model
Functional groups
• Though C is the universal backbone, it is the side
groups that give molecules its unique function
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
H: filler
CH3: non-polar side group
OH: highly reactive
CHO: involved in ring structures of sugars
COOH: highly reactive, important for proteins
NH3: important for proteins
PO4: energetically active (membranes, DNA, energy)
SH: forms disulfide bridges, important for proteins
Fig. 4-10a
CHEMICAL
GROUP
Hydroxyl
Carboxyl
Carbonyl
STRUCTURE
(may be written HO—)
NAME OF
COMPOUND
In a hydroxyl group (—OH), a
hydrogen atom is bonded to an
oxygen atom, which in turn is
bonded to the carbon skeleton of
the organic molecule. (Do not
confuse this functional group
with the hydroxide ion, OH–.)
The carbonyl group ( CO)
consists of a carbon atom
joined to an oxygen atom by a
double bond.
When an oxygen atom is
double-bonded to a carbon
atom that is also bonded to
an —OH group, the entire
assembly of atoms is called
a carboxyl group (—COOH).
Alcohols (their specific names
usually end in -ol)
Ketones if the carbonyl group is
within a carbon skeleton
Carboxylic acids, or organic
acids
Aldehydes if the carbonyl group
is at the end of the carbon
skeleton
EXAMPLE
Ethanol, the alcohol present in
alcoholic beverages
Acetone, the simplest ketone
Acetic acid, which gives vinegar
its sour taste
Propanal, an aldehyde
FUNCTIONAL
PROPERTIES
Is polar as a result of the
electrons spending more time
near the electronegative
oxygen atom.
Can form hydrogen bonds with
water molecules, helping
dissolve organic compounds
such as sugars.
A ketone and an aldehyde may
be structural isomers with
different properties, as is the
case for acetone and propanal.
These two groups are also
found in sugars, giving rise to
two major groups of sugars:
aldoses (containing an
aldehyde) and ketoses
(containing a ketone).
Has acidic properties
because the covalent bond
between oxygen and hydrogen
is so polar; for example,
Acetic acid
Acetate ion
Found in cells in the ionized
form with a charge of 1– and
called a carboxylate ion (here,
specifically, the acetate ion).
Fig. 4-10b
CHEMICAL
GROUP
Amino
Sulfhydryl
Methyl
(may be
written HS—)
STRUCTURE
NAME OF
COMPOUND
Phosphate
The amino group
(—NH2) consists of a
nitrogen atom bonded
to two hydrogen atoms
and to the carbon
skeleton.
The sulfhydryl group
consists of a sulfur atom
bonded to an atom of
hydrogen; resembles a
hydroxyl group in shape.
Amines
Thiols
In a phosphate group, a
phosphorus atom is bonded to
four oxygen atoms; one oxygen
is bonded to the carbon skeleton;
two oxygens carry negative
charges. The phosphate group
P
(—OPO32–, abbreviated ) is an
ionized form of a phosphoric acid
group (—OPO3H2; note the two
hydrogens).
Organic phosphates
A methyl group consists of a
carbon bonded to three
hydrogen atoms. The methyl
group may be attached to a
carbon or to a different atom.
Methylated compounds
EXAMPLE
Glycine
Because it also has a
carboxyl group, glycine
is both an amine and
a carboxylic acid;
compounds with both
groups are called
amino acids.
FUNCTIONAL
PROPERTIES
Acts as a base; can
pick up an H+ from
the surrounding
solution (water, in
living organisms).
(nonionized)
(ionized)
Ionized, with a
charge of 1+, under
cellular conditions.
Glycerol phosphate
Cysteine
Cysteine is an important
sulfur-containing amino
acid.
Two sulfhydryl groups
can react, forming a
covalent bond. This
“cross-linking” helps
stabilize protein
structure.
Cross-linking of
cysteines in hair
proteins maintains the
curliness or straightness
of hair. Straight hair can
be “permanently” curled
by shaping it around
curlers, then breaking
and re-forming the
cross-linking bonds.
In addition to taking part in
many important chemical
reactions in cells, glycerol
phosphate provides the
backbone for phospholipids,
the most prevalent molecules in
cell membranes.
Contributes negative charge
to the molecule of which it is
a part (2– when at the end of
a molecule; 1– when located
internally in a chain of
phosphates).
Has the potential to react
with water, releasing energy.
5-Methyl cytidine
5-Methyl cytidine is a
component of DNA that has
been modified by addition of
the methyl group.
Addition of a methyl group
to DNA, or to molecules
bound to DNA, affects
expression of genes.
Arrangement of methyl
groups in male and female
sex hormones affects
their shape and function.