Critical Thinking
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Thinking is a purposeful mental activity—you
control it…
Thinking is a two-sided activity—first you
produce ideas and then you evaluate them…
Producing ideas widens your focus (resist the
temptation to settle for a few familiar ideas).
Evaluating narrows your focus. Sort the
ideas, identify the most reasonable ones.
Why critical thinking is
important
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Success in work depends on thinking
skills.
It isn’t enough to possess knowledge
but you must be able to apply
information to your job.
Critical thinking is a reliable way of
searching for the truth.
Facts and Opinions
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Facts are realities; opinions are beliefs
or judgments.
Opinions may fit the facts or be in error.
Even the greatest experts sometimes
hold incorrect opinions.
That is why research is so important in
every subject area—it confirms some
opinions and disproves others.
Forming Opinions
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Critical thinkers realize how easy it is to be
mistaken so they form their opinions with
care.
They revise their opinions, even cherished
ones, whenever they prove to be in error.
There is no shame in being wrong, but
problems occur when we stubbornly cling to a
mistaken view.
Recognizing facts & opinions
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Fact: Babe Ruth was a famous baseball
player.
Opinion: Smoking should be banned in
all public places.
Fact: Camel’s hair brushes are made of
Siberian squirrel fir.
Opinion: Eyewitness testimony is
generally unreliable.
Separating facts & opinions
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2)
3)
If you state a fact that is not common
knowledge, or that can’t be easily verified,
briefly state where you got your
information.
If you state an opinion—a view others
might disagree with, include answers to
questions others might ask.
If you are not sure whether a statement is a
fact or an opinion, treat it as an opinion.
Opinion versus personal
preference…
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Often confusing to many people.
Example: “Comic books are as instructive
about life as novels are.”
When asked what evidence exists that comic
books are so instructive, they don’t have an
answer…
Preferences don’t need to be defended as
long as they are expressed as preferences.
(If we express them as opinions, don’t be
surprised if others challenge them.
Basic Approach to Critical
Thinking
Step One: Decide what you think and
why you think it.
Step Two: Seek other views and more
evidence.
Step Three: Decide which view is most
reasonable.
Step One
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Begin by deciding what your position is on
the issue in question. (Putting this decision in
writing can help. Don’t be discouraged if this
takes several attempts.)
Ask yourself what evidence do you have to
support your view?
Are there other conclusions possible?
Answer these questions as completely as you
can. (You might list them rather than write
full sentences.)
Step Two
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Other viewpoints help you test your view and
discover your biases.
You gain additional insights by looking at new
ideas.
Gather ideas from multiple sources: libraries,
instructors, or experts in the field.
Look at ideas that both agree and disagree
with your viewpoint.
Step Three
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Measure your view and the views of
others against the evidence.
Decide which one is the most
reasonable based on the evidence.
Research will often prove your
viewpoint. If it always proves your
viewpoint, you may be twisting the
evidence to meet your needs…
Critical Reading Strategies
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Choose your time and place
Read actively (ask questions/seek
answers)
Concentrate on the task
Write a summary (in your own words;
emphasize key points; & write
accurately)
Reflect on the ideas
Critical Thinking & Writing
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Critical thinking provides the ideas for
writing, and writing stimulates more
ideas.
Allow time for reflection every day.
Focus on discovering ideas.
Be open to ideas at other times.
Expressing your thoughts for
others
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Complete the thinking process first.
Discovery writing is part of the thinking
process—you produce rather than
communicate ideas.
Use your viewpoint as your controlling
idea.
Choose a suitable organization.
Expressing your thoughts for
others - continued
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2)
3)
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Introduction
Your controlling idea
Your first argument for this idea and
supporting evidence
Your second argument and supporting
evidence
Your third argument (if you have one) and
supporting evidence
Conclusion
Expressing your thoughts for
others - continued
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Support your view with evidence
Be exact, but lively. (Choose word
that convey your idea exactly.)
Break your thoughts into paragraphs.
Use standard punctuation and observe
conventions of grammar and usage.
(The Department of Health Studies
uses APA format for most papers.)
Characteristics of Critical
Thinkers
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Know their own minds.
Are honest with themselves.
Acknowledge all truths—even unpleasant
ones.
Accept responsibility and accountability for
their actions.
Accept sound arguments—even if that means
rejecting their own.
Critical thinkers overcome confusion and ask
questions.
They base their judgments on evidence.
Characteristics of Critical
Thinkers - continued
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They base their judgments on evidence.
They resist manipulation.
They look for connections between
subjects.
They balance their thinking.
Critical thinkers are intellectually
independent.
Recognizing and avoiding errors
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Three types of broad errors in critical
thinking
Errors of Perception
Errors of Judgment
Errors of Reaction
Perception Errors
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Faulty ways of seeing reality—
preventing us from being open-minded
even before we begin to think.
“Mine is better” thinking
Selective Perception—focusing on
different things.
Perception Errors - continued
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Pretending to know
Resistance to change
Either/or thinking (Example Evolution
versus Creation Theories)
Judgment Errors
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Over generalizing or stereotyping
Hasty conclusion
Unwarranted assumption (assumptions:
ideas that are taken for granted)
Example: if something appears in print,
it must be true.
Failure to make a distinction
Judgment Errors - continued
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Distinctions are subtle differences among
things.
Distinguish between the person and the idea.
Example: Critical thinkers judge an idea on
its own merits—not on the celebrity status or
expertise of the person expressing it
Distinguish between familiarity and validity.
It’s easy to believe that reasoning is valid
because we’ve heard it many times.
Judgment Errors – continued
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Distinguish between “often” and
“always,” “seldom” and “never.”
Oversimplification differs from
simplification. It omits essential
information or ignores complexity. It
distorts reality and confuses discussion.
Errors of Reaction
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Explaining Away (Example: Marijuana Use—
users feel the studies are wrong because they
have smoked for years and it’s had no effect
on them…”
Shifting the burden of proof. When you make
an assertion, you might have to defend it. If
you find you can’t, avoid shifting the burden
of proof to others but instead withdraw the
assertion.
Reaction Errors - continued
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Attacking the person. “You have no
business lecturing me about…”
Instead focus on the idea than the
person.
Be flexible and be willing to admit a
mistake.
Argument Solving Steps
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Find the Controlling Idea—the idea that
is the most reasonable. Usually stated
right after the introduction.
Read the Article (while keeping the
controlling idea in mind.)
Identify Relationships (more info next
slide)
Write a Summary
Identify Relationships
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And relationships signal that what follows
adds to what preceded. (Words like also,
first, in addition, next, further, and, moreover,
finally, lastly, besides and another.)
But relationships signal what follows contrasts
with what preceded. (Words like however,
nevertheless, yet, or, but, on the other hand,
and in contrast.
Identify Relationships - continued
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Therefore relationships signal that a
conclusion is being made about the
preceding evidence. (Words like so,
consequently, accordingly, thus,
therefore, and it follows that.)
Coping with Complexity
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Overcome confusion by dealing with
one sub-issue at a time.
Begin by making a spreadsheet. Put
the names of the authorities across the
top of the page and the sub-issues
down the left-side. Then indicate each
authority’s view on each sub-issue
Is the
Adkins
Diet
safe?
Is it
costly?
Does it
work?
Medical
Doctor
Health
Dietician Dieter
Teacher
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
????
Yes
No
No
Yes
????
Yes
Complexity - continued
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Chart the sub-issues
Look for the disagreements
Look at the evidence for those sub-issues—
then decide who makes the best persuasive
case for that issue (don’t assume that any
authority is right on every issue!)
Use your decisions on the sub-issues to
determine your overall view of the issue.
Evaluating Your Own Views
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Step 1: Decide what you think and why
you think it.
Step 2: Seek other views and more
evidence.
Step 3: Evaluate the various views.
Step 4: Construct the most reasonable
view
Process
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Original View
Significant ideas discovered in the
investigation/research process
Revised View
Evaluating Others’ Views
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Step 1: Understand the other person’s view.
(Withholding all judgment)
Step 2: Seek other views and more evidence.
Step 3: Evaluate the various views. (Pros &
Cons—may want to chart)
Step 4: Construct the most reasonable view.
(If no one view proves to be fully reasonable,
then construct a view by combining parts of
the views.)
Propaganda Techniques
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Bandwagon-creates the impression that
everyone is doing something or buying
something. It appeals to the urge to
conform.
Glittering Generality – Using words or
phrases to imply excellence or
uniqueness. “Amazing new discovery”
Techniques - continued
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Empty Comparison – Uses words like
“bigger,” “better,” or “more.” Used to
make statements that seem to make a
serious claim—yet you can’t hold the
advertiser responsible because you
can’t tell exactly what is being claimed.
Bigger or better than what?
Techniques - continued
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Meaningless Slogan – designed to create a
positive impression. “Fly the friendly skies” is
designed to associate United Airlines with
friendliness. Aimed at associating a business
with a particular idea or concept.
Testimonial – an endorsement for a product
or service lending their credibility and
celebrity status to products.
Techniques - continued
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Transfer
Voice-over – even if the viewer cannot
name the speaker, the voice may be
familiar and make the message more
appealing.
Objects – Statue of Liberty or American
Flag—showing the symbols arouses
strong positive feelings in many people.
Techniques - continued
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Party Scene – where we see people
enjoying themselves. The product may
be shown as creating a good time. The
product may just be included in the
scene but still leaves an impression…
Use critical thinking skills to identify
propaganda not only in media but also
in writing styles.
Credits
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All the information for this PowerPoint
came from the book Critical Thinking by
Vincent Ryan Ruggiero. The book was
designed as a supplement to the
“Becoming A Master Student” Program.