Written Communication
The Communication Process and Written Communication
Written communication differs from oral communication in that :
It is more likely to involve creative effort
It has longer cycles
It usually has fewer cycles
Plan-Write –Revise Approach
Plan your writing
Need for Planning-
Planning answer us the following questions:
What do we want to accomplish?
How can it best be accomplish?
We prepare both routine and non routine messages
Routine
Daily activities; accepting an invitation; commending an
employee, responding to a customer’s request; requesting for
additional information
Nonroutine
Employee performance appraisal, a grievance response, a
proposal for a new product, and a progress report
Message
Message
Routine Message
Non-routine Message
Routine message are easier to write Non-routine message are not written
in response to ordinary daily activities.
than non-routine message .
Writers who have developed good
writing habits can complete routine
messages in one draft
If the message is routine or simple ,
we may not need to put our planning
steps in writing at all; with experience
we may be able to plan the entire
message mentally
Steps in Planning
No one should expect to write nonroutine messages quickly or in one draft.
If the message is non-routine or
difficult, w should make complete
notes during the planning stage,
followed outline.
• To read the correspondence carefully
• Annotate by underlining or highlighting key points
• If necessary , we can make notes or develop an outline
on a separate sheet
• Obtain previous correspondence or other necessary
information before begin to write
Write
Why am I writing?
How shall I present my message?
What background information do I need?
Where shall I tell my reader the unpleasant news?
Who needs to have this information?
We should also check the arrangement of the information within the message
to be sure that the information appears in the order of its importance or in the
order in which you want the reader to receive the information.
Revise
Revision means being objective about our writing and analyzing the message
in order to strengthen it . It means being critical, even when we think we have
written masterpiece
Worrying
Revising
Planning Draft
15%
10%
45%
25%
5%
Writing Draft
Proofreading
Writing process time
Principles of effective writing
Effective writing use the five C’s of writing
Is the Message Clear
Clear
Concise
Complete
Correct
Courteous
Have we clarified in our own mind what we want to say before we
begin to write?
Will our reader understand what we are trying to communicate?
Unclear
Clear
I can recommended him as an employee without qualification
I can recommend him as a highly qualified employee
Is the Message Concise
Eliminate irrelevant and unnecessary words. Business writing
should convey messages as efficiently as possible. The message
should be brief, as long as clarity and courtesy are not sacrificed
in the process.
Have I used only the essential words ?
Have I included the information necessary for my reader
understanding?
Wordy Have you as yet had an opportunity to make a decision
regarding the job offer we spoke about by phone several
weeks ago
Concise
Have you decided to accept our job offer?
Is the Message Complete?
Complete writing involves thinking about your reader and the
reader’s purpose. We must also consider how much information
the reader require to have his or her questions answered or to
understand the intended message.
Incomplete
We plan to meet on Tuesday at 8 in the
conference room.
Complete
We will meet at 8 a.m. Tuesday. April 16 in the
conference room in Sonargaon Hotel
Is the message Correct?
Is the information factual? Is the message grammatically
correct? To ensure that the message is correct, pay attention
to details. Learn and practice proofreading techniques.
Check for typical errors, including errors about time, place,
and people. Refer to any previous correspondence and
verify information.
Incorrect
You will not be effected by his change.
Correct
You will not be affected by this change.
Is the message courteous?
Letters convey the company’s image as well as the writer’s to
people outside the organization. Letter must convey the same
tone of courtesy and respect that would be expressed in faceto-face communication.
Discourteous I do not believe you have made an attempt to
pay your bill. If you have a good reason, you
certainly have not communicated it to us.
Courteous
You undoubtedly have a good reason for being
unable to meet your obligation. If you wish to
arrange a payment schedule, please phone me . If
not, may we expect your check for the balance by
July 31st.
Suggestions for selecting word
Selecting the right words depends on :
•
Our ability to use language
•
Our knowledge of the reader
•
Our good judgment
“Simplicity in writing .” ReasonFirst:
Many of us tend to write at too difficult a level. Instead
of being ourselves we change our character when we
write. Rather than being friendly, normal people, we
become cold and stiff. We work to use big words and
complex structure.
Second :
The writer usually knows the subject of the message
better than the reader. Thus, the two are not equally
equipped to communicate on that matter. If the writer
does not work at reducing the message to the reader’s
level, communication will be difficult.
Third:
According to the readability research writing slightly
Use Familiar Words
Every day word- use in every day conversation
The words with sharp and clear meaning .
We should avoid the stiff, more difficult word that do
not communicate so precisely or quickly.
Difficult word are not all bad. Use them when they fit
our needs and are understood.
Unfamiliar words
Familiar Words
Endeavor
Try
Terminate
End
The conclusion ascertained from a
perusal of pertinent data is that a
lucrative market exists for the
product
The data studied show
that the products in good
demand
Choose Short Words
Generally short words communicate better than long words.
A heavy use of long words- even long words that are
understood- leaves an impression of difficulty that hinders
communication.
All short words are not easy and not all long words are hard.
Example :
Gybe - short word but unknown
Hippopotamus , automobile, bicycle, etc.- long word but known
Short Words
Long Words
They acceded to the proposition
to terminate business.
They agreed to quit business.
Definitive action was effected
subsequent to the reporting date.
Final action was taken after
the reporting date.
Use technical words and Acronyms with Caution
Avoid
Use
Covered employment
Employment covered by
social security
Cerebral vascular accident
Little stroke
Initials ( including acronyms) should be used with caution.
Some initials such as IBM, are widely recognized, others, such
as XML (extensible markup language), are not.
BCS – Bangladesh Computer Society
BCS – Bangladesh Civil Service
Use Active Voice
Prefer the active voice to the passive voice.
In active voice, the subject does the action. In passive voice, it
receives the action.
Active voice is stronger and shorter.
Writing is more interesting and communicates better when it
uses active voice.
Passive
Active
The result were reported in our July 9
letter.
We reported the result in our July
9 letter.
The policy has been supported by our
union.
Our union supported this policy.
The office will be inspected by Mr. Hall Mr. Hall inspect the office.
Sometimes passive voice is preferable.
Passive is better when the doer of the action is not
important. Passive voice properly de-emphasizes the
doer.
Example:
Advertising is often criticized for its effect on price.
Petroleum is refined in Texas.
Passive voice may enable us to avoid accusing our reader
of an action.
Example;:
The damaged was caused by exposing the material to
sunlight.
The color desired was not specified in your order.
Passive voice also may be preferable when the performer
is unknown.
Example :
During the past year, the equipment has been sabotaged
seven times.
Anonymous complaints have been received.
Passive voice is also better when the write prefers not to
name the performer.
Example:
The interviews were conducted on weekdays between
noon and 6pm
Two complaints have been made about you.
Use Slang and Popular Clichés with Caution
• At any given time in any society some slang words and
clichés are in vogue.
• They may convey a desired effect in a communication.
But they are be likely to be meaningful only for the
moment.
• We should use such expressions sparingly and always
only in informal communication with people who
know and appreciate them.
Select Word with Right Strength and Vigor
In a way, word are like people ; they have personalities.
Some word strong and vigorous. Some are weak and
dull. And some fall between extremes.
Good writer know these differences, and they use them
carefully. They use the words that do the best job of
carrying the intended meaning . As a rule they make
the stronger word stand out .
Selecting words with just the right personalities requires :
• Learn language well – that we learn to distinguish
shades of difference in the meanings of words.
Example:
Tycoon >
Eminently successful business person
Bear market > Generally declining market
Boom >
A period business of prosperity
Mother > Female Parent
• We will not always want the stronger and most
vigorous words. Sometimes , for good reason, we
will choose weaker ones.
Example :
“Bill” (Strong but has harsh meaning in some
minds) we may prefer “statement”
The same goes for : debt and obligation, die and
passed on, labor boss and union official , fired
and dismissed.
•
We should keep in mind that “verb” is the
stronger part of speech. Second is the “noun”.
Verb are action words, and action carries
interest. Noun are the doers of action – the
heroes of the sentence. Thus, they also attract
attention.
•
“Adjectives” and “adverb” are weak words.
They add length and distract from the key
words, the nouns and the verbs. So, we should
use them sparingly.
Use Concrete Language
Good business communication is marked by words
that from sharp and clear meanings in the mind. These
are the concrete words.
Concrete is opposite of abstract. Abstract words are
vague. In contrast , concrete words stand for things the
reader can see, feel, taste, or smell. Concrete word hold
interest, for they refer to the reader’s experience.
Concreteness also involves how we put words together.
Exact and specific wordings are concrete.; general and
vague wordings are abstract.
Example :
Abstract
A significant loss
Good attendance record
Concrete
A 53% loss
100 % attendance
record
In the near future
By noon Thursday
Light in weight
A feather light.
Avoid Overuse of Camouflaged Verbs
Avoid camouflaged verbs. We camouflaged a verb by
changing it to a noun form and then adding action
words.
Avoid camouflaged verbs by
(1) writing concretely
(2) Preferring active voice
(3) make subject persons or things
(4) Write sentences in normal order.
Camouflaged verb
Clear verb form
An arrangement was made to
meet for break fast .
We arranged to meet
for breakfast.
Amortization of the account
was effected by the staff.
The staff amortized the
account.
Application of the mixture
was
accomplished.
They applied the
mixture.
We must bring about a
reconciliation of our
differences.
We must reconcile our
differences.
Select Word for Precise
Meanings
Writing requires a knowledge of language .
We study language and learn the shades of
difference in the meanings of similar words.
Example :
Weary, tired ,pooped, fagged out , exhausted
All refer same things. Yet in most minds there are
differences in the meaning of these words.
For formal message – weary would be more
acceptable than pooped, fagged out.
Money, funds, cash, dough, bread, finance.
Boy , youth, young man, lad, shaver, stripling
We should learn the specific meaning of other
words. Knowledge of language also enable us to use
words that carry the meaning we want to
communicate.
Example:
“Fewer” – smaller number of items
“less” - reduce value
Use correct idiom. Idiom is the way ideas are expressed in a
language.
Example :
Faulty Idiom
Careful about
Comply to
Different than
Equally as bad
In search for
Listen at
Correct Idiom
Careful with
Comply with
Different from
Equally bad
In search of
Listen to
SUGGESTION FOR NONDISCRIMINATORY
WRITING
Use gender-Neutral Word
• Avoid Using Masculine Pronouns for Both Sexes
We can avoid the use of masculine pronouns in such
cases in three ways:
First:
We can reword the sentence to
eliminate the offended word.
Second :
By making the reference plural.
Third:
Use he or she, he/she, s/he, you, one
and person ( we should use such
expression caution.)
Example :
Avoid:
If a customer pays promptly, he is placed on
our preferred list.
First :
A customer who pays promptly is placed on our
preferred list.
Second: If customers pay promptly, they are placed on
our preferred list.
Third:
placed
If customer pays promptly, he or she are
on our preferred list.
• Avoid Words Derived from Masculine Words
Our culture was male dominated when our language
developed. Because of this, many of our words are
masculine even though they do not refer exclusively to
men.
Example:
Gender-Neutral
Avoid
Chairman
Chairperson, chair, presiding officer, moderator
Salesman
Sales person, salesclerk, sales representative
Manpower
Personnel, workers
Businessman
Business executive, businessperson
[
Fireman
Fire fighter
Cameraman
Camera operator
• Avoid Word That Lower Status By Gender
Example
Avoid
Gender-neutral
Lady lawyer
Lawyer
Authoress
Author
Sculptress
Sculptress
Poetess
Poet
Avoid Words That Stereotype by Race, Nationality, etc
Word that stereotype all members of a group by race,
nationality or sexual orientation are especially unfair and
frequently they reinforce stereotypical beliefs about this
group.
It is unfair :
“Jews are miserly”
“Italians are Mafia members”
“ Hispanic are lazy”
“African Americans can do only menial job.”
“Gays are perfectionist.”
Avoid Word That Stereotype by Age
Be sensitive with term:-
Senior citizens, mature, elderly, golden ager, etc.
Avoid :- Teenagers, adolescents
Use :- young person, young man, young woman.
Some slang term show lack of sensitivity:
Brat, retard, dummy, juvenile delinquent, truant,
runaway
Avoid Words That Typecast Those with
Disabilities
People with disability are likely to be discretionary
words.
Avoid
use
Deaf and Dumb
Deaf
Fits
Epilepsy
CONSTRUCTION OF CLEAR SENTENCES AND
PARAGRAPH
•
Emphasis on Short Sentences
•
Short sentences communicate better because of
mind limitation.
•
Short means about 16-18 words for middle level
reader
•
The excessive use of short sentences is also bad.
Short sentence are achieved in two ways:
1)
2)
By limiting sentence content.
By using words economically.
Economizing on Word s:
Economizing on words generally means seeking shorter
way of saying things.
Some suggestion:
Avoid cluttering phrases. Substitute shorter expressions.
Avoid : In the event that payment is not made by
January, operation will cease.
Short : If payment is not made by January, operation
will cease.
Cluttering Phrase
Shorter Substitution
Along the lines of
like
At the present time
now
For the purpose of
for
In accordance with.
by
Eliminate Surplus Word
Contain surplus word
Eliminate surplus word
There are four rules that
should be observed.
Four rules should be
observed.
The machine that are
damaged by the fire were
repaired.
The machine damaged by
the fire were repaired.
I am prepared to report to
the effect that sales
increased.
I am prepared to report
that sales increased.
Roundabout Constructions
Roundabout
Direct
The president is of the
The president believes the
opinion that the tax was paid. tax was paid
It is essential that the income The income must be used to
be used to retire the debt.
retire the debt.
He criticized everyone he
come to contract with.
He criticized everyone he
met.
Unnecessary Repetition of Words or Ideas:
Needless Repetition
Repetition Eliminated
Please endorse your
name on the back of this
check.
Please endorse this check.
We must assemble
together at 10:30 am in
the morning
We assemble at 10:30 am
Our new model is longer
in length than old one
Our new model is longer
than the old one.
Determining Emphasis in Sentences Design
•
We should give every items its due emphasis.
•
Short sentence emphasize contents.
•
Determining emphasize is a matter of good
judgment.
•
Giving the Sentence Unity
•
All parts of a sentence should concern one thought.
There are the three cause of unity error:
1) Placing unrelated ideas in a sentence violates unity
We can avoid this error by:
i) putting unrelated ideas in separate sentences,
ii) subordinating an idea,
iii) adding words that show relationship
2) Excessive detail is another cause of lack of unity,
put it in a separate sentence. This means using short
sentences.
3) Illogical Constructions can rob a sentence of unity.
Illogical Construction
Improved
Job rotation is when
you train people by
moving them from job
to job.
Job rotation is a training
method in which people are
moved from job to job.
My education was
completed in 2004,
and then I began
work as a manager for
Home Deport.
I completed my education in
2004 and then began work as
a manager for Home Deport.
Arranging Sentences for Clarity
•
Clear writing requires that we follow the
establish rules of grammar
•
This rules are based on custom and logical
relationships.
Care in Paragraph Design
Giving the Paragraph Unity
The content of a paragraph should concern one topic or
idea(unity).
But unity can vary in breadth. Paragraph unity concerns a
narrow topic.
Keeping Paragraph Short
Generally, paragraph should be short.
Short paragraph show organization better than long ones.
People simple prefer to read writing with frequent paragraph
breaks. It is more inviting, and it appears less difficult.
Readability research has suggested an average length of eight
lines for longer papers such as reports. But length can, and
should vary with need.
Making Good Use of Topic Sentences
The topic sentence express the main idea of a paragraph, and
the remaining sentences build around and support it. In a
sense, topic sentence serves as a headline for the paragraph,
and all the other sentence supply the story.
But not every paragraph must have a topic sentence.
Leaving out Unnecessary Detail
The chances are that we have more information than a reader
needs. Thus, a part of our communication task is to select
what we need and discard what we do not need. But deciding
what to include is a matter of judgment.
Giving the Paragraphs Movement
Each paragraph should move an additional step toward the
goal.
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E-mails
Letters
Memos
Agendas
Reports
Promotional Material
Academic Documents
Research (scientific) manuscripts
White Papers
Effective Writing Skills
Characteristics Of Business Letter
Purposes of Letters
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



Inform
Instruct
Request
Inquire
Remit
Order
Advise
Correct
Question
Underlying Objectives of letter
Get and hold attention
Catching and keeping the attention of your reader are essential to
getting action. A letter must begin in a way that appeals to the
reader. The very first sentence must get and hold attention,
capture interest, and make the reader want to continue reading.
State the case clearly and concisely
Most businesspeople are busy and have little time to waste trying
to decipher the meaning of a letter. Nor do they have time to
wade through lengthy paragraphs to extract desired information.
When you state your message clearly and concisely; you are more
likely to achieve the desired results.
Establish confidence and get action
Most people respond positively when they have confidence in the
people with whom they are dealing.
FUNCTION OF A FIRST PARAGRAPH
Get favorable attention
Indicate what the letter is about
Set a friendly, courteous tone
Refer to previous correspondence, if appropriate
FUNCTIONS OF MIDDLE PARAGRAPH
Provide Background Information
Provide Supporting Information
FUNCTIONS OF LAST PARAGRAPH
Request Action
Conclude the Message
Present a Positive Company Image
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E-mail is fast, convenient and easy
Email is now the dominant method of
communicating in business.
Convenient for communicating with people in
different places and different time zones
Easier to communicate with people who
understand written form but don’t speak it
well
Excellent mechanism for follow-up or action
items after a meeting
Messages can be saved and retrieved easily
Effective Writing Skills
Email is not always
confidential -- emails can
sometime be obtained from
USE WITH CARE….
central network even if
deleted from personal
Effective Writing Skills
computers
Effective Writing Skills


Email is often sent out without re-reading,
proof-reading and other standards applied to
written communications. We press the send
button too soon!
Emails can be forwarded and sent to others
without our approval or knowledge
Effective Writing Skills
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

Many users do not realize the potential
outcome of what is being sent through e-mails
Business e-mails should be concise and to the
point
The language used in business e-mails should
not be overly informal
Effective Writing Skills
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


Always include a subject or e-mail title
Avoid the “ready, aim, fire” approach
Avoid “flaming”
Don’t be too-casual
Consider if e-mail is the appropriate tool
Make one point per e-mail
Make the font user-friendly
Don’t use all capital or lower-case letters
Effective Writing Skills
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A memo is a document typically used for
communication within a company.
Memos can be as formal as a business letter
and used to present a report.
However, the heading and overall tone make a
memo different from a business letter.
Because we generally send memos to coworkers and colleagues, we do not have to
include a formal salutation or closing remark.
Usually we write memos to inform readers of specific
information. Managers use memos to inform and motivate
employees.
We might also write a memo to persuade others to take action, or
 give feedback on an issue, or
 react to a situation.
However, most memos communicate basic information, such as
meeting times or due dates.
Before writing a memo, outline what your purpose is for doing
so, and decide if the memo is the best communication channel.
Each memo is written for a specific purpose to a specific
audience. The purpose and audience for our memo will
help guide what type of memo you will write.
There are three basic reasons to write a memo:
1. to persuade action
2. to issue a directive
3. or to provide a report.
TO:
Receiver(s), Title
FROM:
Your Name, Title
DATE:
Month Day, Year
SUBJECT:
BE SPECIFIC
No Dear Sir, and so on
No Yours Sincerely, and so on
Heading
A memo's heading provides information about who will receive
the memo, who is sending the memo, the date, and the memo's
subject. This information may be bolded or highlighted in some
way.
Additionally, you might also initial your name in the "FROM" line
to indicate that you gave the memo a final approval.
Sometimes organizations specify how to fill out the headings. If
you are unsure, it may be a good idea to include your job title and
your reader's. The memo will then be informative to someone
new to the situation, or someone who received the memo after it
was passed on from the original reader.
Message
Memos are reproduced and exchanged rather freely, and it is
common for a reader to receive a memo that is only marginally
relevant to him or her.
Opening Segment
This is why it is important that the first sentence of the memo
should answer that question with a purpose statement. The best
purpose statements are concise and direct.
The gist of a memo should occur in the opening sentences/
paragraphs. It's a good idea to include:
1. The context
The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the
problem you are solving or the directive you are giving.
Include only what your reader needs and be sure it is clear.
Consider the following questions:
Is your memo a result of a situation?
For instance, "As a result of yesterday's meeting..."
Is your memo a reminder?
For example, "The Proposal is due July 2."
2.
The task
A statement that describes what you are doing to deal with a
situation.

The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to
include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep two
things in mind:
1.
Begin with the information that is most important. This
may mean that we will start with key findings or
recommendations.
2.
Start with our most general information and move to our
specific or supporting facts.
3.
For easy reading, put important points or details into lists
rather than paragraphs when possible.
4.
Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.


We're almost done. After the reader has read our
information, we want to close with a courteous ending
stating what action we want our reader to take.
Make sure we consider how the reader will benefit from the
desired actions and how we can make those actions easier.
For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this
recommendation with you and follow through on any
decisions you make."
Tone of A Memo
Since we typically send memos to those working within our
company, we can use a more informal tone than we would if we
were writing a business letter.
For example, we might refer to our colleagues by their first
names or use humor. However, always keep in mind that you
still need to be professional. Ask ourselves how the company's
president would react to our memo. If we would be
embarrassed to have the president read our memo, consider
changing or eliminating information.
Length of a Memo
Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, we
may have to write longer memos, depending on our topic.
For example, a memo might present the new guidelines for a
specific office task.
Obviously, if we have over forty guidelines, the memo will be
more than a page. Some memos might even introduce a short
report. In this case, we might include the report in the memo,
or the memo might be a separate document, introducing the
report.
Format Guidelines
Regardless of the style, memos generally have similar format
characteristics, unless otherwise specified by the company.
Listed below are some basic guidelines that can help us create
a memo:
• Memos have one-inch margins around the page and are on
plain paper
• All lines of the memo begin at the left margin
• The text begins two spaces after the subject line
• The body of the memo is single-spaced, with two spaces
between paragraphs
• Second-page headings are used, as in business letters
• The second page includes who the Memo is to, the page
number, and the date
• The sender usually signs the Memo using initials, first
name, or complete name
Directive Memo
A directive memo states a policy or procedure we want the reader
or co-worker to follow. The length of the memo depends on how
much space is required to properly explain the procedure.
The body of the memo should begin with a clear, concise sentence
that states the purpose of the memo.
For example:
"The purpose of this memo is to let all members of the ABC
department know that doughnuts will be provided every Friday
morning at 8 a.m."
We then provide statements that explain the rationale for such a
decision or procedure.
MEMORANDUM
TO:
Design Team #362
FROM:
W.B. Working
DATE:
May 9, 2011
SUBJECT:
Project Schedule
As a result of yesterday's meeting, I suggest we follow the project schedule
listed below. Remember, we must submit a Proposal by noon on July 2.
Schedule
Task
Completion Date
Divide research into groups
and compile information
June 6
Review designs from Kate and Bill.
June11
Write Proposal
June 23
Review Proposal
June 26
Submit Proposal for printing
June 27
TO:
Barbara Smith, Publication Manager
FROM:
Hannah Kaufman, Vice President HK
DATE:
October 14, 2010
SUBJECT: Need for New Memo Format
I’ve noticed that we don’t seem to be able to communicate important
changes, requirements and progress reports throughout the company
as effectively as we should. I propose developing one consistent
memo format, recognizable by all staff as the official means of
communicating company directives.
While I know this seems like a simple solution, I believe it will cut
down on needless e-mail, improve universal communication and
allow the staff to save necessary information for later referral.
Please talk among yourselves to determine the proper points of
memo writing and return the input to me by 12 noon. I will then
send out a notice to the entire staff regarding the new memo format.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this.
Response Memo
The purpose of this memo is to provide the audience with
desired information. It usually has four parts:
purpose statement
summary
discussion
action
Begin this memo with a short paragraph stating the purpose,
which is always to respond to a request for information. Next,
summarize the information requested.
Third, in a discussion section, point out to the reader any
important information that you feel should be highlighted or
stressed.
Finally, in the action section, state any additional action you are
going to take or feel should be taken to properly address the
original request for information.
Field Report Memo
Memos are often used to report on inspection and procedures.
These memos, known as field or lab reports, include the
problem, methods, results, and conclusions, but spend less time
on the methods section.
A field or lab report memo has the following structure:
purpose of memo
summary
problem leading to the decision to perform the procedure
methods
results
conclusions
recommendations
TO:
MEMORANDUM
Dean of Journalism
FROM:
Steve Nash
DATE:
June 27, 1999
SUBJECT:
Computer Lab
Purpose:
This memo presents the findings of my visit to the computer lab at Clark C252.
Summary:
In general, I felt that the lab needs much new equipment and renovation.
Problem:
The inspection was designed to determine if the present equipment was
adequate to provide graduate students with the technology needed to perform
the tasks expected of them by their professors and thesis research.
Methods:
I ran a series of tasks on SPSS and WordPerfect and recorded memory capacity
and processing time for each task.
Results:
The inspection found that the hardware used to run the computers is outdated
and that the computers itself are very slow.
Conclusions:
This lab is inadequate for the everyday needs of graduate students in this
department.
Recommendations:
Four new computers running on Windows98 and a processing speed of at least
233mhz should be purchased immediately.
REPORT WRITING
Defining report
A business report is an orderly and objectives communication of
factual information that serves a business purpose.
Orderly communication – a report is prepared carefully. Care in
preparation distinguishes report from casual exchange of
information.
Objectives :- quality of a report is its unbiased approach. Report
seek truth. They avoid human biases.
Communication :it covers all ways of transmitting meaning :
speaking, writing, drawing and such.
Factual information: it is based on events, record, data, and the like.
A report must serve a business purpose.
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
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Define the main point
Define the goals and objectives
Collect the evidence needed to support the
main point
Organize the report
State the conclusions and recommendations
DETERMINING THE REPORT PURPOSE
The Preliminary Investigation
Getting our problem clearly in mind is largely a matter of gathering all the
information needed to understand it and then applying our best logic to it.
Need for a Clear Statement of the Problem
We should express the problem clearly, preferably in writing.
The problem statement normally takes one of three forms:
1.
Infinitive phrase: “ To determine the causes of decreasing sales at
Store X.”
2.
Question: “What are the causes of decreasing sales at Stores X?”
3.
Declarative statement: “ Store X sales are decreasing, and management
wants to know why.”
DETERMINING THE FACTORS
Use Of Subtopics In Information Report
For example :
Problem Statement : To review operation of company X from January 1
through March 31.
Subtopics:
1. Production
2. Sales and promotion
3. Financial status
4. Computer systems
5. Product development
6. Human resources
Hypothesis For Problems Requiring Solution
Hypothesis (possible explanations of the problem) may be the factors in
problems requiring solution.
Bases of Comparison in Evaluation Studies
GATHERING THE INFORMATION NEEDED
The next step is to conduct the research needed.
A personal investigation is usually appropriate.
INTERPRETING THE FINDINGS
Advice for avoiding human error
1. Report the fact as they are.
2. Do not think that conclusions are always necessary.
3. Do not interpret a lack of evidence as proof to the contrary.
4. Do not compare non comparable data.
5. Do not draw illogical cause-effect conclusions.
6. Beware of unreliable and unrepresentative data.
7. Do not oversimplify
Appropriate Attitude and Practices
1. Maintain a judicial attitude.
2. Consult with others.
3. Test the interpretations
Statistical Tools in Interpretation
•
Statistics permit us to examine a set of facts.
•
Descriptive statistics should help the most.
•
Do not allow statistical calculations to confuse the
reader, they should help interpret.
ORGANIZING THE REPORT INFORMATION
The Nature and Extent of Outline
Introductory and Concluding Parts
Organization by Division
Division by Conventional Relationships
Combination and Multiple Division Possibilities
Wording of the Outline
WRITING THE REPORT
In writing the report, communicate clearly and quickly.
Also give it these characteristics:
Objectivity
Time consistency
Transition and
Interest
Requirement Objectively
Good report writing is objective.
Keep out all bias. Seek truth.
Objectivity As Basis For Believability
Objective writing is believable.
Objectivity And The Question Of
Impersonal Versus Personal Writing
Objective writing has meant writing impersonally
( no I’s, we’s, you’s).
Recently, some writers have argued that personal writing is
more interesting than impersonal writing and just as objectives.
Good advice is to use personal style for routine reports and
impersonal style for more formal reports.
Consistency in time viewpoint
Keep a consistent time viewpoint throughout the report.
There are two time view point: past and present.
Select one, and do not change.
The past-time viewpoint views the research and finding as
past, and prevailing concepts and proven conclusions as
present.
The present-time viewpoint present as current all
information that can be assumed to be current at the time of
writing.
Need for Transition
A well-written report reads as one continuous story. The parts
connect smoothly. Much of this smoothness is the result of
good , logical organization
We should use transition to connect the parts of the report.
Transition means a “bridging across.”
Transition should be used where there is a need to connect
the parts of the report.
For connecting large parts, transition sentences may be used.
Use topic sentences also helps improve thought flow.
Transitional words show relationships between lesser parts.
Maintaining Interest
Report writing should be interesting. Interesting writing is
necessary for good communication.
Interesting writing is the result of careful word choice,
rhythm, concreteness- in fact, all the good writing
techniques.
But effort to make writing interesting can be overdone. The
writing style should never draw attention away from the
information.
An overview of report structure
Title
Fly
Title
Page
Letter of
transmittal
Table of
content
Executive
Summary
2nd step
Title
Page
Letter of
transmittal
Table of
content
Executive
Summary
1st step
3rd step
Title
Page
Table of
content
The Report Proper
The Report Proper
Combination
transmittal/
Executive
Summary
Title Page
4th step
5th step
The Report Proper
Combination
transmittal/
Executive
Summary
Title Page
The
Report
Proper
The Report Proper
6th step Letter Report
7th step Email Report
Characteristics of Shorter Reports
These are the everyday working report – those used for
the routine information reporting that is vital to an
organization’s communication. The shorter report
forms are the most common in business. Their need for
introduction and conclusion varies.
Little need for introductory information
Shorter report s have little need for introductory
materials. Some shorter reports need introductory
materials. Include as much introductory material as is
necessary to prepare the reader for the report.
Predominance of the direct order
The shorter reports usually begin directly with
conclusion and recommendation .
Use the direct order when the conclusion or
recommendation will serve as a basis for action.
Most short report are personal, direct, and without
formal introductions. Although exceptions exist, they
provide
everyday
working
information
to
organizations that is essential to survival.
Use the indirect order when you need to take the
reader through the analysis.
The direct order gives the main message first.
Then it covers introductory materials (if any),
findings and analysis, conclusions and
recommendations.
The indirect order has this sequence :
introduction, facts and analysis, conclusions and
recommendations.
More personal writing style
Personal writing is common in the shorter reports.
The reasons are that the shorter reports usually :
1) involve personal relationships,
2) concern a personal investigation,
and 3) are routine
Writing impersonally :
1 ) when your reader prefers it
and 2) when the situations is formal.
Less need for a structured coherence plan
For shorter report a structured plan is not needed.
By structured coherence plan we mean an
arrangement of summarizing, forward looking,
and backward looking parts that tie together the
report presentation.
FORMS OF SHORTER REPORT
The short report
Letter Report
Email Reports
Special Report Forms
Staff Report
Meeting Minutes
Progress Report
Audit Report
Proposal
The Short Report
•
The short report consists of title page and report text.
•
Usually it is in a direct order , beginning with a summary.
•
The introduction comes next, followed by the findings and
analyses, and finally conclusion.
Letter Report
• Letter reports are reports in letter form.
• Usually they cover short problems.
• Typically they are written in personal style.
• They may be organized in the indirect order (beginning with a
brief introduction)
• They may be also be written in the direct order, in which case a
subject line gives introductory facts.
• Organizations of letter reports are much like those of longer
reports.
• The letter report ends on a goodwill note.
The Stuff Report
One of the most widely used reports in business is the staff report.
It follows a fixed organizational plan that leads to a conclusion.
One typical staff report has these parts:
1. Identifying information: as the company’s staff reports are
written on intercompany communication stationery, the
conventional identification information (To, From, Subject,
Date) appears at the beginning.
2. Summary : For the busy executive who wants the facts fast, a
summary begins the report. Some executive will read no
further . Other will want to trace the report content in detail.
3. Objectives ( or the problem) : as do all good problemsolving procedures, the report text logically begins with a
clear description of the problem.
4. Facts : Next comes the information gathered in the attempt
to solve the problem.
5. Discussion: Analysis of the facts and applications of the
facts and analysis to problem follow.( frequently, the
statement of facts and their discussion can be combined.)
6. Conclusion : From the preceding discussion of facts come
the final meanings as they apply to the problem.
7. Recommendations: If the problem’s objectives allows fro it,
a course of action may be recommendation on the basis of
the conclusions.
The Audit Report
It is a statement verifying an account’s inspection of a firm’s
financial record s.
Short – and – long form audit reports are well known in
business.
Composition of the long –form audit reports is as varied as
the short form is rigid. In fact , a national accounting
association, which made an exhaustive study on the subject,
found practices to be so varied that it concluded that no
typical form exists.
PROPOSAL ORIGINATION
The purpose of a proposal is:1. To inform
2. To persuade
Proposal may originate in two ways:
1.
As responses to requests for proposals
2.
As writer-initiated proposal
and
1. As responses to requests for proposals:
A response to an request for proposal places the initiative for
proposal origination on the person or organization requesting
the proposal . The original idea or need or the proposal , as
well as the format, is provided in the request.
2. As writer-initiated proposal:
Initiating proposal calls for :i) The ability to identify problems,
ii) Creativity in developing possible solutions to problems, and
iii) The ability to present the problems and solutions in a logical
format
PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT
Define Problem
State Objectives
Develop plan of work
Draft proposal
First review and go-ahead
Revise, finalize draft
Management review and approval
Final artwork /Final typing
Proofread final proposal
Reproduction and delivery
Prepare Document
Plan, outline, and design proposal
PROPOSAL CONTENT
Preliminaries
-A title page
- An abstract
- A table of contents
Introduction
Body
Appendices
PROPOSAL PRESENTAION
• WRITTEN PRESENTATION
• ORAL PRESENTATION
Effective
Writing
Skills