1
Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
Toya McCoy
University of Maryland University College
OMDE 601
January 7, 2013
2
Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
Distance Education (DE) programs have the ability to reach mass audiences and have
therefore materialized as a popular way for adults to learn. Due to the increasing popularity of DE
programs and the growing number of adult participation, there came a need to take into
consideration the ways in which education was being delivered to adults. To satisfy that need
Malcolm Knowles, an adult education theorist, developed a theory called andragogy. The term
andragogy was introduced to North America by Knowles in the 1970s (Rossman, 2000). It is
defined as the methods and techniques used to teach adults. Andragogy is a learner focused
approach to educational instruction that encourages independence and personal accountability for
material learned. Instructors function as facilitators and guides, offering structure to the learning
process that is ultimately engaged in by the learner at their convenience (Schultz, 2012).
To further review the concept of andragogy, Knowles established six assumptions of
andragogy: need to know, self-direction, experience, readiness, orientation, and motivation
(Schultz, 2012). These assumptions were introduced to “guide the development of educational
programs for adults (Rossman, 2000).” They have been examined, accepted, and applied to DE
learning strategies centered on adults. This paper will review the two dimensions of the
Andragogical Theory and its role and limitations in relation to adult DE program development and
design. The assumptions of andragogy, despite some limitations, offer the framework for
developing distance education programs.
The Andragogical Theory
The Andragogical Theory is a set of assumptions separated into two dimensions (Rossman,
2000). The first dimension looks at six pertinent characteristics of adult learners. These
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Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
characteristics include: 1) A need to know. Adults are typically interested in knowing why they
need to know something prior to leaning it and are only interested in learning things that benefit
them in some way; 2) Leaners’ self-direction. According to Knowles, those who take initiative to
learn have more motivation and determination (Knowles 1975: 18 as cited by Conner 1997;
Rossman, 2000). Self-directed learners are responsible for their own learning. They evaluate
themselves and are willing to make adjustments to their methods to enhance progress; 3) Level of
experience. Adult learners have more experiences that influence their desire/ need to learn. These
experiences act as tools in learning (Knowles, 1990; Bullen 1995); 4) Readiness to learn. Readiness
to learn is induced by life’s roles. As life changes adults prepare to learn what is needed for their
current situation (Knowles, 1990; Bullen 1995); 5) Being task or problem orientated. Adults learn
best when content is presented in a context that mimics actual situations they have or will
experience (Knowles, 1990). They want to be able to immediately apply what they learn; and finally
6) Motivation. Normal adults are motivated by growth and development. Internal motivation to
learn things that are necessary to function in life is inherent to adulthood (Knowles 1975: 18 as cited
by Conner 1997; Rossman, 2000).
The second dimension observes the impact the characteristics in dimension one have on the
methodology of delivering adult education (Bullen, 1995). In this element the physical and
psychological learning environment is established (Rossman, 2000). The learning environment
should provide the students opportunities to utilize effective learning strategies like reflection, prior
experience, conversations and authentic experiences in order to achieve better learning results. This
should be an environment of respect and dignity where the learner feels supported. This is also the
point where learner involvement is established and objectives are set. The procedural practices that
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Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
result from considering adult characteristics are: 1) establishing a relaxed, collaborative, informal
and supportive atmosphere for learning, 2) analysts of needs, objective setting, and joint content
planning by the learner and facilitator, 3) design of learning activities 4) operation of the activity 5)
continuous evaluation of conditions by learners and validation by peers, facilitators and experts
(Bullen 1995; Rossman, 2000).
Implications of Application to Distance Education Program Design
Applying the andragogical theory to DE program design is practical on some levels and exhibits
issues on other levels. Several advocates of the gesture suggest that applying it to developing DE
program schemes will result in a more efficient learning process and produce learners who are selfdirected and independent (Bullen, 1995). The components of the theory that coincide with the DE
program development process are (Schultz, 2012):
 needing to know the reason for learning something
 ability for adults to bring more life experiences to the classroom
 the need to be in charge of their decisions on education; planning and evaluation
 interest in learning subjects that will be immediately implemented
 approach to learning that is problem focused rather than content based
 response to internal motivation opposed to external motivation
Implementation of the these assumptions is evident in the DE practices of developing general to
specific learning contracts, courses with individual projects, and asynchronous discussion forums.
Despite the many facets of the andragogical theory complementing DE program design there is
a lack of empirical evidence to support its application (Bullen, 1995). Researchers who have studied
the assumptions of andragogy have concluded that successful, relevant application is subject to the
settings in which the assumptions are being applied. The independent approach propagated by the
andragogical theory does not take into consideration adult learners who benefit from instructor
directed situations. In Robinson’s study at Ryerson Open College it was found that learners were
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Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
naturally motivated and used personal experience in completing course work but exhibited no
interest in self-directed learning (Robinson, 1992 as cited by Bullen 1995). Another study by
Loesch and Foley found that adult learners prefer a learning atmosphere where instructors are
responsible for assignment creation and direct the course of learning. These same learners also
prefer to work in groups not by themselves (Loesch & Foley, 1988 as cited by Bullen 1995).
There are also theoretical and practical concerns that stagnant the use of the andragogical theory
in DE. The andragogical approach to DE program design contradicts the educational philosophies
of most conventional universities (Bullen, 1995). In these institutions the curriculum is typically
content focused whereas andragogy is problem focused. It is difficult to apply andragogy to DE
course design due to the materials being mass produced and used over an extended period of time.
The individual focus of the theory calls for courses to be customized to individual learner needs.
Conclusion
Prior to designing adult DE programs, education theorist found it necessary to study adult
learning styles and motivators. This is where Knowles model of andragogy emerged. Many
educators believe that the principles of andragogy, as advanced by Knowles, are relevant to adult
education. His two dimensional andragogical theory is a learner focused theory based on
philosophies of adult characteristics. It has both advantages and limitations in its usefulness in adult
DE program design. Andragogical theory should not be applied to all DE program development. In
deciding to use an andragogical approach the learner preference, type of course, and the universities
philosophies need to be examined (Bullen, 1995).
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Toya McCoy
OMDE 601 Section 9040
January 7, 2013
Pedagogical Theories in Relation to the Evolution of Distance Education
References
Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. In seventeenth conference of
the International COlUlcil for Distance Education, Birmingham, UK, Website: http://www2.
cstudies. ubc. caJ~ bul1en/bullenl. htm i.
Conner, M. L. (1997). Andragogy+ Pedagogy. Ageless learner, 2003.
Knowles, M. S. (1990). A theory of adult learning: andragogy. In M. Knowles (4th Ed.), The adult
learner: a neglected species (pp. 27-65). Retrieved from
http://www.lindenwood.edu/education/andragogy/andragogy/2011/Knowles_1990_AL3.pdf.
Rossman, M. H. (2000). Andragogy and Distance Education: Together in the New Millennium.
New Horizons in Adult Education, 14(1), n1.
Schultz, R.B. (2012). A Critical Examination of the Teaching Methodologies Pertaining to Distance
Learning In Geographic Education: Andragogy in an Adult Online Certificate Program.
Review of International Geographical Education Online, (1), 45