Major Characteristics and
Aspects of Traditional China
Overview
• Thought and Culture
• Political Structures and Systems
• Society
Thought & Culture
• (Vohra, pp. 5-10)
• Rujia daotong (“The Orthodox Way and
Tradition of Confucianism”) – dominant
ideology of Chinese society and state since
1st Century BCE
Original teachers:
Kong Qiu (“Confucius”) ca. 550-480 BCE
Meng Ke (“Mencius”) ca. 370-290 BCE
Xun Qing (“Xun zi”) ca. 313-238 BCE
 Major categories of values in teachings of the
original (Classical) masters
Ren (仁) Compassion, humaneness, likemindedness with others
Yi (义) Rightmindedness, ethical correctness
Li (礼) Propriety, ritualistic rigor in behavior and in
relationships
Xin (信) Trust and trustworthiness, honesty
Jing (敬) Respect, honor
Qian (谦) Courtesy, modesty
Cheng (诚) Sincerity, completeness of mind
Five Cardinal Relationships: Father-son;
Sovereign-subject; husband-wife; older brotheryounger; friend
 Peak periods of Influence of Confucian ideology:
Han dynasty, late-2nd C BCE – early 3rd C CE)
Tang dynasty, 7th through 9th C CE
Song dynasty, 11-early 13th C CE
Ming dynasty, 14th – 17th C CE
 The Latter Evolution of Confucian Philosophy: Song and
Ming dynasties’ “Neo-Confucianism”:
Daoxue (Moral concept of “natural law”)
Lixue (Rationalism: gewuzhizhi qionglijinxing :Study
things to attain knowledge, pursue inherent principles
and reach the fullness of the potential of human nature)
Xinxue (The human mind is the only real consciousness)
Xin-Li xue (The Mind = Rational Principle; Rational
Principle = Consciousness)
Zhixingheyi (Unity of Thought and Action)
 What does “Confucianism” mean? It is both
Philosophy and Orthodoxy – the underpinning of
a concept of a rigid universal social and state
order
The political unity of Qin & Han (3rd C BCE) – the
model of state ever since
The establishment of Imperial order
The creation of “syncretic Confucianism” by
absorbing influences of other schools
The sustained support of auxiliary social systems
(govt. endorsement, bureaucracy, education,
examination system – ladder of success)
The extension of Confucian cultural influence and
the expansion of the Chinese empire
• Other cultural influences
 Philosophical traditions: Daoism, Me-ism,
Legalism, ancient Scientism
Assimilation under the Han
 Religions:
Religious Daoism, regional and local beliefs and
religious practices
Buddhism (intro. to China in 1st C CE; processes
of Sinicization; becomes one of the major pillars
of cultural connection between China – including
the Chinese state – and the rest of Asia;
unquestionably the most populous religious
system in China, if not in Asia; Buddhism’s
varieties – not a monolithic system of belief in
China)
 Relationship between Confucian orthodoxy and
other influences: Fairly peaceful coexistence
due to the “division of spheres” over the
centuries (contrast with situation in Europe) –
Projection: A very different set of conditions in
terms of “inter-system” and “inter-cultural”
relations comes into play when 19th evangelical
Christianity, supported by the power of Western
states, is introduced into the equation in the
“modern era.” (In other words, the ways in which
Christianity sought to impact China in the 19th
century was nothing like the ways in which other
non-indigenous religions, such as Buddhism,
had done in the past. Thus the responses were
also very different.)
• Significance of understanding the tradition of
Confucianism for our comprehension of Modern
China
 Orthodoxy: tremendous and deep influence on
Chinese society, values, and state
 Enduring tradition but also target of change
 Manchu monarchy adopted and adapted itself to
the Confucian order and its teachings – hence in
the modern period rebellion against the Manchu
imperial system also involved to some degree
rebellion vs. Confucianism
 Confucianism not limited to China
 The resilience of Confucianism – particularly
philosophy
Political Structures & Systems
• (Vohra, pp. 2-3; 7; 10-11; 12-14)
• Monarchies and dynasties
• Bureaucracy: The dominant influence of a
bureaucratic govt. (officials chosen for “merit”however that maybe defined) vs. a nobilitydominated govt. (blood = access to political
authority) has been a characteristic of MOST
(not all) of trad. Chinese political history
Bureaucracy not = democracy; bur. existed
UNDER monarchy
• The “Mandate of Heaven” concept applied to the
legitimation of imperial rule and dynastic
prolongation (compare w/ “Divine Right of Kings”
in Western tradition of monarchical absolutism)
Political Systems cont’d
• Central and regional/local governance: A
hierarchical pyramid of govt. order and govt.
appointments
• “Grass-roots self governance”: The baojia
system: Subject populations expected to have a
role in monitoring themselves and to maintain
order at the grassroots level; but this does not
mean autonomy or the devolution (or even
delegation) of political authority to grassroots
level
• Constant and repeated tension between Central
govt. (centralism) and the politics and power of
the regions: Persistent regionalism not only a
social-economic phenomenon but a profoundly
political one as well; several times resulted in
division
• Ethnic co-existence and contestation: “The
Chinese” is a modern social and political
“construction.” “China” traditionally (and now) is
a multiethnic and multicultural entity, fraught
with issues of co-existence and contestation.
 (Periods of non-Han rule of all or parts of
China)
Northern dynasties 386-581 CE
Liao 907-1125
Jin 1115-1234
Mongol/Yuan 1206-1368
Manchu/Qing 1644-1911
(Total: 933 in 2231 yrs. = 42%)
 (Major ethnicities)
Han, Meng (Mongol), Hui, Uighur, Zang (Tibetan), Man
(Manchu), Yue, Zhuang, Bai, Yue (Viet), Dai (Thai),
Min
Society
• Hierarchies: Classes
Gentry (two intertwined types: govt & landed)
peasant farmers (the vast majority; broadly
differentiated by economic prosperity
levels/classes within the category)
industrial workers, artisans, and the commercial
class: Culturally demeaned but real historical
growth; Commercial economies mostly medium
and small; industry run the gamut from peasant
household-based “cottage industries” to large
scale productivity industries (e.g., mining.)
Limited mechanization until late-19th C
• Patriarchy dominant throughout traditional
Chinese (esp. Han) society. Reinforced by “neoConfucian” ethics since 12th C
Society cont’d
• Widely divergent regional rates of development: influenced
by many factors besides geography
 Core vs. peripheral
 Hinterland vs. coast
 North vs. South
 Urban vs. rural
• Ethnic divisions
• Trade and the world: Trad. China was not an isolated
country re. trade and communications; “Enclosed China” in
need of being “opened up” forcefully is a persistent,
convenient myth for rationalizing European
expansion/aggression; even the “kernel of truth” behind the
myth is a short-sighted “reality.” (Evidence: The significance
of the “Maritime Silk Road” from 10th -18th C; the vast
amount of Chinese goods in Europe in 17th and 18th C.)