The Brave
New World
How the Americas influenced European
Culture and How Europeans Changed
America
Europe Prior to the Renaissance
Europe in 1300 was fragmented, made up of
numerous small kingdoms, but relatively unified by
faith. The Church in Rome tried to control doctrine.
Recovery of Ancient Knowledge
One gain from the Crusades in the late Middle Ages was
the “recovery” of copies of the writings of Aristotle,
Plutarch, and other ancient writers. The dissemination of
these encouraged new forms of learning.
Marco Polo
In the 1300s, a manuscript account
of a journey to China, written by
Marco Polo (left) was read by many
scholars and merchants in Europe.
While some are still uncertain that
Polo ever actually traveled to China,
many were excited by his
descriptions of the great wealth of
the Chinese cities and the cities of
the Middle East. Ships from the
Italian port cities now began to
engage in trade with ports on the
eastern Mediterranean, purchasing
goods and information from Asia
and the ‘silk road’ trade.
New Trade and Trade Routes
Polo’s account of his journey to China stimulated new eastwest trade. The Italian cities benefited from this trade because
it used the old eastern Mediterranean route of ancient times.
New Technology Boosts Learning
In the 1400s, a group of enterprising businessmen
perfected moveable type in a new printing press,
which further revolutionized the spread of
information in Europe.
Rise of Humanism
In the 1300s and 1400s, new ideas
began to flourish, partly because
many of the “old” ideas of the ancient
Greeks and Romans were being more
widely distributed with the growth of
the printing press. Petrarch (left), an
Italian scholar, wrote numerous
poems and essays in imitation of the
works of ancient Roman poets and
philosophers. Petrarch’s focus on
human affairs – as opposed to
theology and faith – helped spur a
“rebirth” of creative work centered on
humanity.
Additional Factors in Changing the
European Mindset.
New methods of measurement and record keeping:
 Increases in the processing of wool led to ‘factories’ of twothree dozen workers in France and Italy. Work schedules were
created to organize workers and time-keeping was established
– new clocks are created.
 Double-digit bookkeeping created to keep accounts and
inventories.
 More precise tools for measuring distance, weight, and
volume developed, which also influences map-making and
navigation,
 New navigation instruments are developed to better
determine latitude and astronomical tables printed for ship
use.
Portolanos for Sailing.
Portolanos were special maps that contained navigation
lines – set routes for reaching specific ports or harbors.
These were useful only in known waters.
The Unknown Hemisphere.
Since there was no specific record of the migration of Asians to
“North America” about 60,000-100,000 years earlier, even
educated Europeans were unaware of its existence.
Native American Cultures
10-20,000 natives lived at the mound city of Cahokia
in the 1200-1300s. The city and its corn-culture was
abandoned for unknown reasons.
Over thousands of years, numerous Native American cultures
developed, ranging from small nomadic groups cities in South
and Central American, and in the “Mississippian” mound
communities near the rivers in mid-North America.
Pre-Columbus Ties Across the Oceans
There is little doubt that there
were many contacts between
the inhabitants of the
“American” continents and the
inhabitants of the EuroAfrican land mass prior to the
15th century. In addition to
scattered references in
ancient writings, experiments
by various anthropologists
have suggested possible
ways in which this occurred.
In the early 1970s, Thor Heyerdahl, a Scandinavian explorer, used a
reed boat constructed in ancient Egyptian fashion to cross the
Atlantic (boats of similar design have long existed in South America).
Evidence of European Exploration
Scandinavian records show that several voyages
were made from northern Europe across the Atlantic
between the 10th and 13th centuries.
Evidence of European Habitation
Archaeologists have found remains of Norse
settlements in Greenland and Newfoundland.
Seeking Asia by the Atlantic
Since the Italian ports controlled the trade
from the Middle East, merchants from
western Europe began to speculate on
the prospects of reaching Asia by sailing
around Africa toward India. Henry (left), a
prince of Portugal, opened a special
school for oceanic navigation on Lisbon,
and paid for a number of expeditions
along the coast of Africa, trying to find
the southern extent of the continent.
In order to interest others in investing in his expeditions,
Henry, the “navigator,” encouraged the explorers to return
with profitable items from Africa. Among these profitable
items was unfortunately groups of slaves.
Columbus
By the 1480s, several
ship captains speculated
on the possibility of
reaching Asia by sailing
west and across the
Atlantic. Cristobal
Colon, (Columbus) was
an Italian seaman who
tried to interest England
and France in such a
venture.
Columbus’s idea was feasible only if the Earth was about 15,000
to 18,000 miles in circumference, an estimate reached by one
group of Greek scholars. Fifteenth century ships could not be
provisioned for more than about 3-4 months at sea.
1492 – The First Voyage
In 1492, Columbus
persuaded the King and
Queen of newly united
Spain to pay for a threeship expedition across
the Atlantic. In October,
after weeks at sea,
Columbus’s sailors
sighted land to the west.
Columbus assumed he
had reached Asia.
While exploring these islands of “India,” Columbus found large
numbers of natives, little gold or conventional riches, and few of
the trade goods that Europeans wanted. But he returned to
Spain convinced he had opened a new route to Asia.
Four Voyages and Claims to “New
Lands”
After four explorations of the the islands (i.e. the
Caribbean), Columbus still did not realize that he was on
the doorstep of a continent unknown to Europe. Others
eventually realized it, and one of them took the credit.
Americus and America
In a 1507 publication briefly
describing Vespucci’s voyages, the
German geographer Waldseemuller
wrote “I see no reason why anyone
should justly object to calling this
part ... America, after Amerigo*
[Vespucci], its discoverer, a man of
great ability.”
* Rendered in Latin as Americus
Americus Vespucci, another Italian sailor, claimed to have
explored the coast of a new continent in the south in 15001501. Although no evidence of his voyages have ever
been found, mapmakers called the new lands “America.”
Spain claimed the rights to these new lands based on
Columbus’s voyages and the explorations after him.
Conquistadors
Most of exploration of the New World for Spain was carried
out by conquistadors – literally conquerors -- men who had
helped conquer much of Spain from the rule of Islamic
caliphs in the 1400s and now sought to gain land, wealth
and fame in the new lands across the ocean.
Encomiendas
In order to encourage expeditions to the New
World, the government of Spin granted
“encomiendas” to explorers – grants of land,
and the inhabitants on the land. This
encouraged abuses and led to slavery. Cortez
destroyed the Aztecs through this system.
Las Casas Argues Against Slavery
In 1515, Bartolome de Las Casas, a
Spanish missionary, began arguing
against the policy of ecomiendas.
He argued that Native Americans
had souls and thus it was immoral
to enslave them. He devoted the
remainder of his life to a campaign
for the better treatment of the
“Indians.” His writings were
translated into English in the
1600s, but had only limited
influence on how English explorers
and settlers treated the native
inhabitants of North America.
John Cabot
Yet another Italian seaman, Johan Cabotus, was paid by
England to duplicate Columbus’s exploration. Sailing
across the Atlantic from further north in 1498-99, Cabot
explored the shores of what would become eastern
Canada and New England, giving England its own claim.
New World as Unspoiled Utopia
Some early explorers, like Walter Raleigh (right) and his half
brother Humphrey Gilbert thought the New World offered a
chance to create a new society free of the Old World’s vices.
Little Ice Age
Still debated changes in world temperature occurred after
1550. This influenced food supplies, changes international
relations, and impacted the settlement of the new world.
Promoting Colonies
Early attempts by England to establish
colonies failed. A colony at “Roanoke”
on the Carolina coast failed when most
of the settlers returned to England after a
difficult winter. The group left behind
simply disappeared. Plans for other
attempts collapsed for want of funds.
Richard Hakluyt, an English promoter of
colonies, collected accounts of English
explorations and published these in the
1580s in an attempt to maintain
momentum for a colony supported by
the government.
How Colonies Began
 A successful colony required funding, ships and supplies,
trained soldiers for protection and a willing group of settlers.
 The English economy was growing in the late 1500s was
growing so few wanted to colonize for economic reasons.
War with Spain also slowed the colonization plans.
 The Crown did not wish to pay for colonies, so instead
offered ‘charters’ (legal and economic privileges) to private
investors who would establish a colony.
 The most likely groups for finding colonists were religious
dissenters – Protestants who felt the Church of England
(Anglican Church) was not sufficiently “reformed” from
Catholicism. Dissenters found a ‘new world’ to be a chance
for creating a new religious community.
British Society
• British society in 1600 was highly structured, with very
distinct social classes.
•The earliest settlers (at Jamestown in 1607) were
“gentlemen,” members of the British gentry class. A few
brought servants with them, and the rest of the group were
primarily soldiers, hired to provide protection.
•At Jamestown, may of the gentlemen hired Native
Americans to do their heavy labor.
•Later Jamestown settlers were made up of a wider range of
social types – laborers, farmers, artisans, merchants, and
more gentry. Most others treated the gentry with deference
(respect and politeness).
Enclosure
From the 1500s, the British
ruling classes began enclosing
lands that had been used “in
common” – fencing these lands
for raising cattle or sheep and
making money from the sales of
beef, hides and wool. Poorer
British farmers, denied use of
these enclosed lands, began to
leave for employment in the
cities – or for the colonies.
Pilgrims-Puritans
Two groups of potential
colonists were the Pilgrims
and the Puritans. The
Pilgrims were a Protestant
group who had emigrated
to Holland, but were
considering a further move
to American because they
found the Dutch culture too
“liberal.”
The Puritans were a much larger group. Their leaders were
largely gentlemen with some wealth and influence in English
society. They believed the Church of England was “too Popish.”
Neither the Puritans nor the Pilgrims believed in the tolerance of
other faiths (or each other).
Jamestown
The first successful English colony was Jamestown, a purely
economic venture by young English gentlemen who hoped to find
land and wealth in “Virginia.” With charter from King James I,
they landed in 1607 and built a fort along the James River. Few
had any experience in exploration or living off the land.
Remnants of Jamestown
Archaeologists have
found much evidence at
Jamestown to indicate
the importance of
defense – remains of
pikes (left) and a bullet
mold (right) that suggest
that John Smith, one of
the military leaders was
right when he wrote that
fear of the Natives was a
prime concern.
Starvation
Smith also described the first winter, when hunger led to
disease and death among the first colonists. Remains of
Indian pottery at the site substantiate Smith’s accounts of
seizing food from local Indians. A turtle shell also shows that
the English adopted native diets to supplement their food.
New Agriculture
Attempts to grow foods and other crops from English seed
largely failed at Jamestown. The colony had many lead and
hard years before a Native American plant – tobacco– provided
the ‘cash crop’ that the settlers needed to sell for a profit in
Europe. Unfortunately, slavery grew along with tobacco.
Colonizing New England
In 1620, the Pilgrims, having returned to England from
Holland, obtained a charter to establish a colony near
Virginia. Their leaders deliberately sailed to New
England instead to create a separate community in
what is now southern Massachusetts.
Mayflower Compact – First Civil
Government.
“covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil
Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation,
and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid; And by Virtue
hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and
equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions and
Offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most
meet and convenient for the General good of the
Colony”
Because the Separatists had violated the King’s charter by settling further
north, it was necessary to create an agreement for the group to live and
work together.
Intolerance
William Bradford (left) wrote the most
detailed account of the first years of
Plymouth colony. He recorded numerous
examples of the Pilgrim’s intolerance
towards others. When Thomas Morton
sailed to New England in 1624, he used
liquor to entice the Algonquin Indians to
trade for furs:
“They ... set up a May-pole,” [Bradford wrote]
“drinking and dancing about it many days together,
inviting the Indian women [to be] their consorts,
dancing and frisking together, (like so many fairies, or
furies rather,) and worse practices.”
Miles Standish, the Pilgrim military commander, led an armed
party to seize Morton and send him back to England. They
destroyed Morton’s makeshift camp and his Maypole.
Cultural Baggage
“Cultural Baggage” is s term used for the cultural
habits and values that a group of immigrants
brought with them from their old home to their
new home – in the case of early American
colonists, the cultural baggage was primarily
English culture from the 1500s and 1600s.
These early colonists discovered that they would
have to adapt their European cultural heritage to
the environment of North America.
Cultural Exchange
The Pilgrims would not have
survived in the New World
without the aid of the local
Native Americans aided
them. Because English
seed did not at first thrive in
the soil of New England, the
Pilgrims had to obtain food
from the natives, and also
learn to cultivate local food.
The Pilgrim-native relationship was an example of “cultural
exchange.” The Pilgrims learned to grow maize (corn), squash,
pumpkins, and beans from the Algonquians and also were
allowed to hunt game on their lands. In return the Pilgrims
exchanged trade goods (cloth, tools, etc.) for furs trapped by
the natives.
The Dark Side of Exchange
 Because they feared the natives might try to
destroy them if they knew the extent of their
death rate, the Pilgrims hid the graves of
many who died in the first year.
 The microbes (germs) from Europe
devastated native populations in New
England – with small pox, diphtheria and
other European illnesses killing thousands.
 Early colonial villages were built in the open
fields left by tribes wiped out by disease
(Springfield, Deerfield, etc.)
The “City Upon a Hill”
The Puritans, another
Protestant group,
carried out a wellorganized colonization
of what is now
Massachusetts, between
1630 and 1645. Entire
communities that were
supplied and supported,
established Boston and
several nearby villages.
Once again, the object
was to create a separate,
“Godly community of
Saints.”
Again, Intolerance
Puritans were no more willing
to practice tolerance than the
Pilgrims. In the latter 1600s,
Puritan communities banned
Quakers from living anywhere
nearby. Quakers who refused
to accept this law were hanged.
Puritans were very strict within
their own families.
In the 1680s, Connecticut, a Puritan-dominated colony
created as the need for land grew, passed a series of ‘blue
laws,” or restrictions on personal behavior. On of the laws
permitted parents to ask the courts to execute any of their
children who failed to obey the parents.
Walking a Fine Line
John Winthrop, the principal leader
of the early Puritans in America,
wanted to carefully adhere to British
law so as to keep the King from
interfering with the growth of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony. When
several of the early settlers wanted
to haul down the British flag at the
port (because it had a Church of
England cross on the design)
Winthrop refused, saying that would
draw the attention of the British
navy.
No Democracy
None of the early colonies was in
any sense a democratic society.
The Puritans banned Roger
Williams from the Massachusetts
Bay Colony when his
interpretations of the Bible
disagreed with the prevailing view.
Going south, Williams established
the colony of Rhoda Island, which
allowed a greater measure of
religious toleration than other
colonies – and worked to establish
friendlier relations with the Indians.
But government remained in the
hands of a few ‘gentlemen.’
Witchcraft
In this rough
woodcut image,
Satan presents
his book to a
witch. Puritans
believed that the
devil required
individuals to
renounce their
covenant with
God and sign a
new contract
with Satan.
White-Red Tensions
In the middle 1630s,
Puritan soldiers virtually
exterminated the Pequot
Indians after an argument
over furs and trade goods
led to warfare. The Puritan
leaders argued that they
had “God’s blessing” to
wipe out the heathen
Pequots.
Like many other wars to come, other Native American bands
helped the Puritans destroy the Pequots – this eliminated a rival
in the fur trade and enabled other bands to take Pequot land.
Disunity plagued the Native Americans as they faced European
expansion.
Non-British Colonies
By the late 1600s, other
Europeans were coming to North
America in larger numbers. The
Dutch Colony of New Amsterdam
was seized by the British in 1664
to eliminate a fur trade rival. In
1682, William Penn (right)
obtained permission to create the
Pennsylvania Colony as a haven
for Quakers. But within 50 years
large numbers of German
families came to Pennsylvania to
establish farms
Middle Colonies
 New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware
and Maryland were the “middle colonies.”
 Their population was mixed – Dutch, Swedish,
German, Scots, British
 Religion was also mixed – Puritan, Church of
England, Presbyterian, Mennonite, Catholic.
 Economies were a mix of trade, farming, and
early industry.
Representative Government
In 1619, Virginia governor
George Yardley agreed to
allow 2 men from each
Virginia borough (township)
to come to Jamestown and
advise him on how to enforce
the law. This was the
beginning of the House of
Burgesses – the first
legislative body in America.
But it represented
PROPERTY holdings more
than individuals.
The Pennsylvania Constitution
“THAT the freemen of the said Province shall on the Twentieth
day of the Twelfth Month which shall be in this present year
One Thousand Six hundred Eighty and two Meet and
Assemble in some fit place of which timely notice shall be
beforehand given by the Governour or his deputies and then
and there shall chuse of themselves Seventy-Two persons of
most note for their Wisdom Virtue and Ability who shall meet
on the Tenth day of the first month next ensuing and always
be called and act as the Provincial Councill of the said
province.”
From the Pennsylvania Charter of Liberty, 1682 – the first
grant of full religious freedom was also given in this charter.
Indentured Servitude
Before the late 1680s, American population grew from
immigration – the death rate was greater than the birth rate.
The Skills Trades
Necessary skills were acquired
through apprenticeships – young
workers or indentured servants
were trained by working with a
skilled craftsman (such as a
shoemaker, left) and eventually
acquired a certificate or license to
practice the trade as a craftsman.
Shoemakers, cabinet makers,
home builders, cigar makers,
brewers, soap-makers and the like
were all skilled craftsmen.
Trade Restrictions
Luxury goods, like fine silver,
clothes, wines, books, even
glass, was acquired from
Europe. Over the years,
English trade laws grew to
restrict what American
colonist could buy from any
other country but England.
These laws, enforced by the
Board of Trade, caused
growing resentment,
especially from wealthier
Americans.
Limited Manufacturing
In order to protect English manufacturers, the English
crown restricted American manufacturing – iron ore
discovered in western Massachusetts could be used to
make tools but not fine goods or steel implements.
Trade Routes
Colonial traders made fine profits from the
complex trade routes between the Americas and
the Old World, but resented trade laws.
Mercantilism
 The colonies would be regulated by
imperial government to control trade
 Certain companies in Britain were granted
monopolies to trade in certain goods (eg.
Hudson Bay Company controlled interior
fur trade).
 Colonies not allowed to create industries
that would compete with those at home.
Shipbuilding
Colonial ports could build
ships, but the government
regulated which parts of
the world those ships
could trade with – eg.
Sugar could only be
bought from British sugar
colonies.
Indentures Decline
As the British economy
improved back home, the
number of indentures to
America declined. By the
1690s, the birth rate had
begun to outpace the
death rate – now
American population
began to grow rapidly.
From Indentured Labor to Slavery
Slavery increased as the
number of indentures
from Britain declined
Slavery and the Law
As slavery grew in numbers, laws were passed to make it a
permanent feature in several colonies
Black Codes
• Colonies (South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia) passed
laws that forbade owners to free slaves.
•Laws that made slavery permanent by decreeing that
the children of slave mothers were also slaves.
•Laws that did not allow free Africans to own property.
•Laws that would not allow free Africans to become
apprentices or be taught skilled trades.
Fugitive Slaves
Colonies enacted laws that
enjoined other colonies to help
apprehend and return runaways –
these “fugitive slave” laws became
the basis for the U.S. Federal
government’s laws for the same
purpose – which became a divisive
element in the union soon after the
American Revolution.
Slavery and Freedom
The increase in slavery sparked protests
Anti-slavery Movements
In the 1700s, John Woolman
became one of the first colonists
to protest the existence of slavery,
and argue that it should be
forbidden under British law.
Anti-slavery in the
“Middle Colonies”
“Now, though they are black, we cannot conceive there is
more liberty to have them slaves, as it is to have other
white ones. There is a saying, that we should do to all men
like as we will be done ourselves; making no difference of
what generation, descent, or colour they are. And those
who steal or rob men, and those who buy or purchase
them, are they not all alike?”
Resolutions against slavery, from the Mennonite
community of Germantown Pennsylvania, 1688.
“Praying Towns”
John Eliot, a puritan divine,
created special communities
for Indians who accepted
Christianity. These “Praying
Indians” were never really
accepted by most colonists,
who eventually wanted their
land.
In the southern colonies, laws
were passed to prevent Black
slaves from having close
contact with Indians – fearing
that the two would united in
revolt.
British Administration
of Colonies
 Early colonies were administered purely by ad
hoc arrangements of the Crown (charters, etc.)
 As trade grew, the Board of Trade became a more
powerful force in colonial government.
 Navigation Acts, to regulate what could be
exported, and how it would be taxed, grew as the
colonies became more complex.
 Rivalry with Spain and France also influenced
how colonies were governed.
Resistance to Royal Rule
In the 1670s and 1680s,
Edmund Andros governed
New York by issuing orders
and threatening those who
questioned him with charges
of treason. But when
Andros’ successor needed to
rasie money, he had to call
an assembly to create tax
legislation.
Rebellion
In the 1670s, Virginia governor
William Berkeley refused to make
war against the Indians, which
many struggling tobacco farmers
wanted. Nathaniel Bacon, an
ambitious landowner, led a
rebellion that temporarily
overthrew Berkeley.
Legacy of Revolt in Britain
In 1649, the Puritan-dominated
Parliament of Britain executed
King Charles I for “treason against
the British people.” Many were
horrified by this, including
philosopher Thomas Hobbes
(right) who argued that people be
basically corrupt and required a
“strong hand” to rule over them.
The Social Contract
When the Parliament in Britain drove
King James II from the thrown in
1688, John Locke, another
philosopher, argued that
government was the result of a
“social contract” made by
enlightened people, who could
therefore depose a bad ruler and
form a new government (new
contract). Some in the colonies
used this idea to oppose “bad
governors.”
Smuggling
Colonists who were caught
smuggling were tried in special
“Admiralty Courts” by the
British Navy, so one’s
neighbors could not help the
culprint with a light sentence.
Local Press
Local newspapers carried a
good deal of information
about the activities of the
British navy, schedules for
ship arrivals and departures –
which helped the potential
smuggler make his plans.
Newspaper Censorship
 The British government seldom interfered
with the local newspapers.
 There was, however, no legal “freedom of
the press.”
 Newspapers were not permitted to criticize
government figures who were appointed
by the King – that would be treason.
Georgia
The layout of Savannah in Georgia Colony resembled a Roman military
garrison, reflecting its strategic importance as a frontier outpost protecting the
American colonies from Spanish America.
The Zenger Trial
“The question before the Court
and you, Gentlemen of the
Jury, is not of small nor private
concern nor is it the cause of a
poor printer, nor of New York
alone. No, it may affect every
Freeman to deny the liberty of
both exposing and opposing
arbitrary power by speaking
and writing truth.”
A. Hamilton, lawyer for John
Peter Zenger, 1735.
A New Society?
By the 1720s the thirteen colonies had become more
closely tied to one another by trade and the common
experiences of creating “little Englands” in North America.
But as the colonies became more like England in form and
manners, colonists also realized that the “American
experience” also made them quite different from those
back in Europe.