Youth Sports
Do you know what the #1 reason children cite for
their participation in a sports program?
“to have fun”
“Winning the game” ranks near the bottom of the
list.
Youth Sports
• Athletic endeavors that provide children
and youth with a systematic sequence
of practices and contests
• 39 million youth participate in nonschool
sponsored programs
• 7 million youth participate in
interscholastic sports
Youth Sports
Why are so many children involved?
– Trend toward earlier participation
• A 4-year-old holds the age group record for
running a marathon
– Increase in female participation
• The number of interscholastic sports for
girls has increased from 14 (1971) to 41
(1999)
Youth Sports
Why are so many children involved?
– Children are beginning to get involved
in what used to be considered
nontraditional sport activities
• Tennis, cycling, bowling, ice hockey, crosscountry skiing
– Rule changes
• Even the youngest child can experience
success
Youth Sports
Why are so many children involved?
– There is an increased in the number of
disabled children who participate
•
•
•
•
•
•
American Wheelchair Bowling Association
Handicapped Scuba Association
National Foundation of Wheelchair Tennis
National Wheelchair Softball Association
Special Olympics
United States Quad Rugby Association
Youth Sports
• Benefits of youth sport activities
– Academic performance improvement
– Physical fitness
– Self-esteem enhancement
– Deterrent to negative behavior
Where Children
Participate in Sports
Agency sponsored
sports
Little league baseball
Pop Warner football
Club sports
Pay for services (gymnastics,
tennis)
Recreational sport
programs
Everyone plays
Intramural sports
Middle, junior, senior high
school
Interscholastic sports
Middle, junior, senior high
school
Most Popular Interscholastic Sports
Girls
Boys
Basketball
Football
Outdoor track & field
Basketball
Volleyball
Outdoor track & field
Fast pitch softball
Baseball
Soccer
Soccer
Cross-country
Wrestling
Tennis
Cross-country
Swimming & diving
Golf
Competitive spirit squads
Tennis
Golf
Swimming & diving
Why Children
Participate in Sports
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
To have fun
To improve skills
To be with friends
To be part of a team
To experience excitement
To receive awards
To win
• To become physically fit
(Wankel & Kreisel, 1985)
Why Children
Participate in Sports
• Wankel and Kreisel (1985)
– Emphasis should be on involvement,
skill development, and enjoyment of
doing the skills
– According to the children, winning and
receiving rewards for playing are of
secondary importance
Why Children
Participate in Sports
10 Most Important Reasons I Play My Best School Sport
(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To have fun
To improve my skill
To stay in shape
To do something I’m
good at
For the excitement of
competition
6.
7.
To get exercise
To play as part of a
team
8. For the challenge of
competition
9. To learn new skills
10. To win
Why Children Drop Out of Sports
• Contrary to popular belief, children do not
drop out of sports because of stress
• More often, withdrawing from a sport is due to
interpersonal problems
• Pursue other leisure activities
• Researchers report that a majority of
“dropouts” reenter the same or new sport
– Caution should be used when using the term
“sport dropout”
Why Children Drop Out of Sports
11 Most Important Reasons Children Stop Playing a Sport
(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I lost interest
I was not having fun
It took too much time
Coach was a poor
teacher
There was too much
pressure
I wanted a nonsport
activity
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
I was tired of it
I needed more study time
Coach played favorites
The sport was boring
There was an
overemphasis on
winning
Why Children Drop Out of Sports
Six Most Important Changes Children Would Make in a Sport
That Was Previously Dropped
(Athletic Footwear Association, 1990)
BOYS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
“I would play again if”
Practices were more fun
I could play more
Coaches understood players
better
There was no conflict with
studies
Coaches were better teachers
There was no conflict with social
life
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
GIRLS
Practices were more fun
There was no conflict with
studies
Coaches understood players
better
There was no conflict with social
life
I could play more
Coaches were better teachers
Sport Participation: Controversies
• Medical Issues
– Football
– Baseball
– Soccer
– Downhill skiing
– In-line skating
– Overuse injuries
– Are youth sports injuries avoidable?
– Nutrition
– Making weight
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Football
• Football is classified as a
contact/collision sport
• Injury rate increases as players mature
in age and grade level
• 65% of the injuries occur in offensive
players
• However overall injury rate for youth
football is low (~5%)
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Football
• Most prone injury
sites
– Hand/wrist
– Knee
– Shoulder/humerus
• Most common injuries
– Fractures
• Epiphyseal fractures
– Sprains
– Contusions
– Strains
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Baseball
• Relatively safe sport for youth
– Two major injuries: chest and eye injuries
• Chest trauma
– Commotio cordis – batter struck in chest
with pitched ball; catcher struck by foul
tipped ball
– Occurs more often in boys under 16 yr
– 2-4 deaths reported each year
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Baseball
• Eye injuries
– Softer ball used because of the concern for
commotio cordis
– Fewer commotio cordis injuries result
– However, physicians are concerned that a softer
ball will allow more of the ball to enter the eye
orbit, resulting in a greater number of eye injuries
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• Soccer is classified as a
contact/collision sport
• One of North America’s fastest growing
sports
• Studies suggest that youth soccer is a
relatively safe activity
– Most injuries are from person-to-person
contact
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• Classic study (Nilsson & Roaas, 1978)
– Examined injury rate from 1975-1977 in two
tournaments (Norway Cup)
– Ages: 11-18 yr
– n= 25,000 youth
– 2987 matches
– 1343 injuries
– Girls had a higher injury rate
• Reason - lower skill development and training
• Greater injury rate during final rounds
• However, most injuries are minor
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• Heading the ball in soccer can result in
– Headaches
• 49% of players complained after heading a ball
– Mild to severe deficits in attention
– Problems with concentration
– Mild to severe deficits in memory
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• Common injury site
–
–
–
–
–
Thigh
Ankle
Foot
Torso
Head & neck
• Type of injury
–
–
–
–
–
–
Contusions
Muscle strains
Sprains
Fractures
Heat illness
Concussions
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• Cause of injury
– Person-to person contact
• 43%
– Repetitive overload
• 20.4%
– Contact with ground
• 17.5%
– Contact with goal post,
etc.
• 6.5%
• Effect of injury
– Missed one game
• 38.5%
– Missed all remaining
games
• 19.3%
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Soccer
• How can soccer injuries be reduced?
– Closer officiating
– Pregame warnings for playing tactics (take downs,
hacking)
– Coaching within the spirit of the rules
– Protective padding for players and goal posts
– Remove all sideline objects (chairs, water coolers,
etc.)
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Downhill Skiing
• Classified as a limited contact/impact sport
• Injury occurs due to contact with ground or
stationary object
– Contact usually occurs at a high velocity
• Girls are more prone to injury than boys
• Injury rate increases up to age 13 yr of age
• Injury rate levels off between age 13 and 15
yr
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Downhill Skiing
• Out of 3456 participants, 423 injuries reported
• Most of the injuries occurred in 12 and 13
year olds
• Common injuries
– 51.0% ~ sprains
– 11.1% ~ fractures
(Garrick & Requa, 1979)
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ In-line Skating
• Fastest growing recreational sport in the US
• Excessive speed is the main cause for injury
(speeds of 30 mph are not uncommon)
• 35% of all falls result in injury
• 60% of all injury occurs in youth between 10
and 14 years of age
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ In-line Skating
• Prevention of injuries
– Players should wear all
protective gear available to
them
•
•
•
•
Wrist guards
Elbow pads
Knee pads
Helmet
• Often, children do not use
protective equipment
because discomfort, cost,
and unsightly appearance
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Overuse Injuries
• Youth are specializing in sport at earlier ages
which involves year round training
• Overuse injuries occur as a result of placing
the body under repeated stress over a long
period of time
• Common sites: epiphyseal plates, cartilage of
the apophyses, articular cartilage, stress
fractures
Little Hercules
Sandrak Website
“Ironically, there are child labor
laws in many countries that
forbid stereotype work
movements and excessive
loading…but these same
restrictions do not apply to
children’s sports”
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Overuse Injuries
• Traction apophyses injuries
– Osgood-Schlatter disease
• Insertion of the patellar tendon at the
tibial tubercle
– Sever’s disease
• Insertion of the Achilles tendon into
the calcaneous
• Both injuries occur because the
skeleton is growing faster than soft
tissue elongation
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Overuse Injuries
• Little League elbow
– Repeated stress to the medial and lateral
structures of the elbow
• Rule changes are designed to protect
the young pitcher
– T-ball, ball is not pitched to the batter
– Some leagues no longer allow the curve
ball
– Limit the number of innings/wk that a
young player may pitch
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Overuse Injuries
• Significant increase in Runner’s knee
injuries
– Inappropriate tracking of the kneecap
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Avoidable?
• Make sure young athletes have been properly
conditioned
• Avoid overtraining
• Provide qualified adult supervision
• Change rules to create a safe environment
• Match competitors according
to body size and weight
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Avoidable?
• Require use of appropriate safety equipment
• Do not allow an injured child to return to
competition until the injury has been fully
rehabilitated
• Do not allow children to partake in
questionable practices designed
to create a competitive edge
• Use coaches who are certified
• National Center for Sports Safety
– Online certification course
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Nutrition
• Child’s appetite should dictate need
• The practice of fasting (wrestling) and quick
weight gain (football) should be avoided
• Vitamin supplements are not necessary when
the young athlete is eating a balanced meal
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Making Weight
• Some adults have used unacceptable
practices to give their child a competitive
edge
–
–
–
–
–
–
Exercising in a sauna
Not letting child drink water
Not allowing child to swallow spit
Administering diuretics
Exercising in a rubber suit
Fasting
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Making Weight
Dangers of rapid dehydration
– Cells, urine output, blood volume and sweating
mechanisms do not function properly
– 3% weight loss will decrease physical
performance
– 5% weight loss can lead to heat exhaustion
– 7% weight loss can lead to hallucinations
– 10% weight loss can lead to heat stroke
and circulatory collapse
Sport Participation: Controversies
• Psychological issues
– Stress
• Unpleasant emotional state
– Reducing competitive stress
• Are young athletes being exposed to
too much competitive stress?
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Stress
Model depicting the development of stress and potential behavioral outcomes
Situation
Individual views outcome
as important
Appraisal
Individual evaluates his/her
ability to meet the demands
of the situation
Consequences
Withdraw and try a new
sport; Withdraw
permanently
Emotional Response
Unfavorable appraisal
leads to physiological
and cognitive stress
Passer, 1982
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Another Viewpoint
• Youth sport participation is not the only
stress encountered in the daily life of a
young person
• Precompetitive state anxiety
– Study by Simon & Marten (1979)
– 468 children in youth sports
– 281 children who competed in a physical
education softball game, school test, group
competition in band, and band solo
competition
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ State Anxiety
Result: note the greatest level of precompetitive
state anxiety is for band solo students
Children’s precompetitive state anxiety in 11 sport activities.
The precompetitive state anxiety scale ranges from 10-30.
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Reducing Stress
• Change something about the sport
so that success occurs more often
than failure
– T-ball uses stationary batting tee
instead of a pitcher
• Skill training instills confidence
– More time should be spent on
teaching and less time on scrimmaging
Sport Participation:
Controversies ~ Reducing Stress
• Children who perceive themselves
as competent are less threatened
and perform better
• Winning/losing should be placed in
perspective
– Child may feel that he/she has
disappointed parents or coach
• Help child set realistic goals
Youth Sport Coaching
• Who’s coaching our children?
– mostly volunteers
• 90% lack the necessary formal preparation to
coach
– 9 out of 10 volunteer coaches are men
• Safe on First
– An organization designed to run
background checks on those who coach
children in US
– Sex offenders, criminal record, etc.
Youth Sport Coaching
• Why do people volunteer?
– Involvement of coach's child in league
– Personal enjoyment
– Skill development of players
– Character development of players
– Personal challenge
Youth Sport Coaching - Education
• The annual turnover rate for coaches
is 50%
• There is a rise in the number of
lawsuits directed toward youth sport
coaches and organizations because
of alleged negligence during
practices and games
Youth Sport Coaching - Education
• The National Standards for Athletic
Coaches (US)
• National Coaching Certification
Program (Canada)
• Technological advances now allow
educators to reach more potential
youth sport coaches to obtain
coaching education and
certification
Youth Sport Coaching
• Arguments against mandatory coaching
certification
– Due to the increase in participation, more sport
offerings are required, and therefore, additional
coaches are needed
– Demand for coaches exceeds supply
• Programs may have to be cut
– Certification process is expensive
Youth Sport Coaching
Guidelines to Enhance Youth Sport Experienced
Healthy philosophy of winning by coach
Appropriate reactions to desirable behaviors
Appropriate reactions to mistakes
Appropriate reactions to misbehaviors, lack of
attention, and maintaining discipline
Appropriate behavior by the coach
Parental Education:
Curbing Violence
• There has been a significant increase in
violent behavior from parents during the
last 15 years
– Occurrences range from attacks to murder
Parental Education:
Curbing Violence
• Organizations are requiring parental
education
– Sportsmanship training
– Parents Association for Youth Sports
(PAYS)
• Parent beats a volunteer coach to death
in front of his children after a youth ice
hockey game for ten year olds
Bill of Rights of Young Athletes
1.
Right of the opportunity to participate in sports regardless of
ability level
2. Right to participate at a level that is commensurate with each
child’s developmental level
3. Right to have qualified adult leadership
4. Right to participate in safe and healthy environments
5. Right of each child to share in the leadership and decision
making of his/her sport participation
6. Right to play as a child and not as an adult
7. Right to proper preparation for participation in the sport
8. Right to an equal opportunity to strive for success
9. Right to be treated with dignity by all involved
10. Right to have fun through sport
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Sex
Family Income
Age
Sex
Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Study (WHO, 2002)
Family Income
PA Resources Available
80
70
60
50
High SES
Low SES
40
30
20
10
0
Total
Pay
Free
Estabrooks & Gyurcsik (2000)
+
-7
9
-7
4
-6
9
-6
4
-5
9
-5
4
-4
9
-4
4
-3
9
-3
4
-2
9
-2
4
-1
9
-1
4
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
12
-1
1
9
710
6
4-
Energy Expend.
Age
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Enjoyment
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Peers
Family
Coaches/Others
Cultural constraints
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Sidewalks
Parks
Local Clubs/Teams
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Cost
Pollution
Bike Lanes
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Crime/Violence
Lighting
Traffic
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Friendly
Trees/Flowers
Traffic
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Correlates of PA in youth
– Individual
• Demographic factors
• Psychological factors
• Social factors
– Environmental
•
•
•
•
Opportunity
Accessibility
Safety
Aesthetics
Built
Environment