Nationalism
19th Century
Crimean War
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Background to Crimean War
Nicholas I—Tsar of Russia
Rigid conservative
Fear of revolution
Maintain legitimacy (Holy
Alliance)
• Focal Point of Conflict: AngloRusso
• Survival/dissolution of Ottoman
Empire
• Control of Bosphorus and
Dardanelles
• Fate of Christians in Turkey
• Russia and Persia:
• 1826: Persia denounced Treaty of
Galistan (1813) which gave Russia
vast territories between Black and
Caspian seas
• 1827: Russia took Erivan and
marched on Tehran;
• 1828: Treaty of Turkmanchoi: Russia
gets Persian provinces and allowed to
put Russian navy on Caspian Sea
• Russia and Turkey
• 1826: Russo-Turkish Akkerman
convention
–Moldavia and Walachia get
autonomy
–Serbia—guaranteed privileges
granted earlier
–Russian sovereignty in disputed
Caucuses Territories
–Russian merchantmen: free
passage on Straits
• October 1827: Anglo-FrenchRussian naval forces in Bay of
Navarino (Ionian Sea)—destroyed
Turkish fleet
• Constantinople demands
compensation and apology—gets
none
• Declared jihad against Christian
powers
• June 1828: Russia invaded
Ottoman’s Danubian principalities
and defeated Turks
• By August, 1829, Russia
approaching Constantinople
• September 1829: Treaty of
Adrianople: Russia gets mouth of
Danube; territories in Caucuses;
right of passage confirmed;
Moldavia and Walachia: indep.
Gov’ts under Russian protection
Ottoman Empire
• 1833: Russo-Turkish alliance
• In response to Egyptian rebellion
against Ottoman empire—Western
powers do not help, so Sultan turns to
Russia
• Russian war vessels invited into straits
Feb-April, 1833, and land 10,000
troops
• Russia looked poised to invade and
sparked alarm in both Turkey and
West
• July,1833: Secret Treaty of Unkiar
Skelessi: between Russia and
Ottoman empire
• 8 year treaty: ‘eternal peace’,
alliance and friendship guaranteed
• Existing Russo-Turkish
agreements confirmed
• Russia tries to maintain
independent Turkey
• No access of foreign vessels of
war to the Dardanelles
• Russian troops immediately
withdrawn from Turkey
• {West thought a secret clause
allowed Russia the right to send
warships through Straits—it did
not}
• France/GB did not recognize
treaty
• 1833-1848: Russophobia in West
• Belief that Russia had designs on
India
• 1839: Egyptian-Turkish hostilities
resume
• Turkey soundly defeated;
European powers feared Russian
intervention: five powers meet to
discuss options
• 1841: Straits Convention
• Confirmed “ancient rule” to close
straits to war vessels in time of
peace
• France too close to Egypt, and not
told about meeting until terms had
been signed
• French relations become strained
• Nicholas I hopes GB will help to
restrain revolution in Europe
• 1844: Nicholas visits GB
• Meets w/Foreign Secretary Earl of
Aberdeen
• Maintain status quo in Turkey
• If Turkey dissolved, GB/Rus were
to reach preliminary agreement on
the new order
• Nicholas believes it is binding
• Aberdeen: mutual opinion
• Revolutions 1848
• Alarmed Nicholas I—massed
troops on the border to invade
Europe, but did not
• Nicholas I and Nesselrode (GB) try
to save Austrian monarchy
• Russia lent $/diplomatic
assistance to Austria in struggle
w/Italian provinces
• Russia helped to repress
Hungarian Revolution
• 1848-1849: War between
Austria/Hungary: Russia sends
180,000 troops into Hungary
• Russia suffers heavy losses, but
Austria victorious by August
• Russia also desired
• Maintenance of framework of
German Convention
• Check German nationalism—
assoc. w/Prussia and liberalism
• Russia traditionally close to
Prussia, but blocks attempts to
lead German states
• Holy Alliance weakened
• Crimean War 1854-1856
• Dispute over Holy Land
–Conflict centuries old; Catholics and
Orthodox fought over rights to
protect Christian shrines and
populations in Holy Land
–For decades (from Louis XVIII to
Louis Philippe) Catholics had little
interest in Holy Land
–Orthodox step in
• 1850: Louis Napoleon requests
restoration of Catholic rights,
guaranteed by existing treaties,
these rights: possession of the
key to the great door of the
Church of Bethlehem; and right
to replace silver star marking
Christ’s birthplace; had been
taken over by the Orthodox
Church of the Nativity
• Turkey conceded French claims
and at same time assured Russia
that the existing situation remained
unchanged
• 1852: strong pressure from Paris
resulted in formal grant of French
demands
• Nicholas did not accept diplomatic
defeat
• 1853: Alexander Menshikov
dispatched to Constantinople
• Russia wants secret treaty
ensuring all Orthodox laymen and
churches in Ottoman empire be
placed under Russian protection
• Turkey refused
• May-July, 1853: Russian troops
occupy Danubian principalities
w/out declaring war
• GB/France weighed anchor at
entrance to Dardanelles
• September, 1853: enter Straits
• October, 1853: Turkey declares
war on Russia
• December: battle of Sinope:
Russia destroyed part of Turkish
fleet
• GB/Fr sailed towards Black Sea
• April 1854: General War declared
• Turkey
• Great Britain
vs
Russia
• France
• Piedmont-Sardinia
• Russia gets no help from “Holy
Alliance”
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Naval action in four areas:
Baltic Sea
White Sea
Pacific Ocean
Black Sea—three fronts: Danubian
principalities, Crimea, Caucuses
• No rail n-s in Russia; poor roads
• Could not supply troops
• Allies controlled Black Sea
• Danube taken by Russia in 1853
• Austria promises to ‘hold’ Danube
for Russia, but withdraws in
September 1854
• September 1854: 300 Transports
and 90 War vessels carried 60,000
allied troops to Crimea
• They begin 11 month siege of
Sevastopol
•\
• Result of war: Russia has some
success: taking of Kars
• Mostly, it was a war of attrition
w/great loss of life
• Battle of Balaklava: Charge of the
Light Brigade
• 250,000 allied forces died
• 600,000 Russian forces died
• Florence Nightingale--nursing
• 1854: Vienna Conference: 4 point
program:
• European protectorate over
Moldavia, Walachia, Serbia—not
Russia
• Freedom of navigation on Danube
• Revision of 1841 Straits
Convention
• Christians in Turkey protected by
five powers, not only Russia
• Russia does not accept this until
Austria threatens military action
unless Russia agreed to peace
• Feb. 1856: Paris Peace
Conference
• Accepted 1854 proposals
• Russia recovers Sevastopol for
Kars
• Ceded Moldavia, Bessarabia,
mouth of Danube to Turkey
• Russia prohibited from maintaining
naval and military establishments
on Aland Islands (by Finland)
• Black Sea is neutralized
• Russia/Turkey denied rights to
maintain navies there
• Russia is angry—begins
breakdown of Concert of Europe
• Austria untrustworthy—no friends
in Europe
• Unification of Italy
• 1815 Congress of Vienna gave
Lombardy and Venetia to Austria
• Austria brutally suppresses reform
demonstrations
• Italians want Austrians out
• 1820, 21 Carbonari: Society of
Charcoal Burners organized from
middle class
• Revolts in Naples, Turin failed
• Many carbonari exiled/imprisoned
• 1831: Giuseppe Mazzini, a
carbonari, founded Young Italy
• Broad-based people’s movement
to unite and free Italian Republic
by revolutionary means
• Mazzini also most effective
member of the Risorgimento
• Young Italy not very successful,
but Mazzini’s writings were:
• Nationalistic: National identity
important for unification
• Nation State : political organization
w/one nationality
• Vincenzo Gioberti: 1843; On the
Moral and Civil Primacy of the
Italians Federated monarchy
w/liberal constitution; Pope as king
• Balbo: newspaper editor: unite
Italy under strong king (Charles
Alberti of Piedmont)
• Main obstacle to unification was
Austria
• 1848: Mazzini inspired nationalists
to lead republican revolution in
Sicily
• Other European uprisings inspire
Charles Alberti
• Alberti declares war on Austria
• Naples, Tuscany, Papal States
send troops, but had little training
and few supplies; troops withdraw
and Alberti’s army is defeated
• Italian nationalists angry w/pope;
November 1848, pope flees as
republicans take over Rome and
establish a Roman Republic, led
by Mazzini
• Pope Pius IX calls on Louis
Napoleon, Naples, and Spain to
aid him
• Louis Napoleon sent French army
to restore order and Papal
authority in Rome
• Unsuccessful defense of Rome by
Giuseppe Garibaldi led to retreat
by Mazzini
• Lessons of 1848:
• Mazzini’s republic a failure
• Federation under pope also bad
idea—no interest in unification
• Piedmont the only hope: Charles
Albert steps down; Victor
Emmanuel becomes King of
Piedmont
• Victor Emmanuel brings in Camillo
Cavour as financial minister
• Unification of Italy main priority
from 1848 on
• Cavour was industrialist, banker,
landowner
• Favored free-trade and enterprise
• Politically, he supported limited
monarchy after Austria gone
• Economically, Cavour promoted
modernized state: improved roads,
Democratic reforms, railroads
introduced
Cavour saw need for foreign aid to
get rid of Austria—he supported
Fr/GB in Crimean War
WHY??? 1855-56 Stalemate
Allies need fresh troops for war
They ask Cavour to send troops into
war w/Russia
France agrees to pay for Italy’s
supplies
GB sells weapons cheaply
Cavour can stash weapons for war
against Austria w/Crimean War
• Prior to 1848: Italy has not battletrained troops
• Opportunity to learn battle-training
w/best armies against the best
army in Europe
• “In the mud of Crimea we will
create a united Italy.”
• 20,000 troops in Italian
contingence sent; w/in months,
Russia surrendered
• Italy invited to Paris Peace
Conference
• Claims equality w/warring nations
• Gets nothing for Italy
• Makes friends w/Napoleon III—
reminds him of his role as carbonari
• Cavour’s cousin becomes Napoleon
III’s mistress
• Cavour gets invite to Napoleon’s
resort in Plombieres
• 1858: Plombieres Agreement
• Secret meeting: Napoleon III
promises to aid Piedmont in
expelling Austria
• Piedmont to get North/central Italy
• France to get Savoy and Nice
• NOW, Cavour needs war w/Austria
• Cavour supports anti-Austrian
groups in Lombardy
• Leaks news of French-Piedmont
agreement
• Holds war-games on Austrian
border
• Austria tells Piedmont to stop
military build-up
• Piedmont refuses
• April 29, 1859: Austria attacks
Piedmont
• Piedmont fends off Austria until
France arrives
• Railroads used for first time in
history to transport troops quickly
• They win two battles: Magenta
and Solferino
• Road to Vienna wide-open
• Napoleon III wanted to become
field officer at Solferino: he sees
battlefield and hears screams of
dieing, blood, etc. He becomes
violently ill; can’t do this to another
man;
• He approaches Austria for peace
treaty
• July 8, 1859: Villa Franca—
Napoleon III signs peace treaty
• Does not tell Cavour about it;
• Napoleon secured Lombardy but
not Venitia; Cavour is furious
• Napoleon wants to be paid
• Cavour agrees to give him Nice
and Savoy, but not to put Pope on
the throne
• Cavour tells all city-states that they
were sold out;
• City-states (Tuscany, Parma,
Modena, Romagna) revolt against
their rulers and vote to voluntarily
join Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont
• How to get the South to join?
• Ferdinand II of Naples died and
was replaced by his inexperienced
son, Francis II; Conditions were
ripe for revolution
• Garibaldi was the man for the job.
• Joined Young Italy; inspired by
Mazzini; 1830 uprising found him
exiled to South America, where he
learned guerilla fighting tactics
• 1860: returned to Italy; Cavour
supports Garibaldi w/ funds;
Garibaldi collected 1000
volunteers in Genoa and landed
an expedition in Sicily
• w/in few weeks, Garibaldi
controlled the island
• Crosses to Naples and his
guerrilla bandits-Redshirtsoutmatched the Naples army
• Francis II fled
• Victor Emmanuel II secretly
supported Garibaldi; Cavour is
anxious
• Cavour sends most of Piedmont’s
army to Papal States
• Sept 18, 1860, Papal army defeated at
Castelfidardo and the Piedmontese
army entered Naples
• Garibaldi hands over Southern Italy to
Victor Emmanuel II in Naples
• March 1861: Victor Immanuel II
declared unification of Italy
(ex.Rome/Venetia)
• Cavour dies shortly thereafter
• After Unification, divisions still
existed between N. and S.
• S—poor, agrarian,
• N—industrialized
• Civil wars raged
• Unified military/ed system
developed
• Railroad built
• 1866: Italy allied w/Prussia against
Austria; as a reward for fighting
w/Prussia, Italy got Venetia
• 1870: Franco-Prussian war: Napoleon
III withdrew troops from Rome/Italy’s
troops entered Rome w/out much
resistance
• Pope Pius IX took refuge behind
Vatican Walls/did not accept
Piedmont’s gov’t
• 1872: Victor Immanuel moved capital
from Florence to Rome
• Unification of Germany
• 1815: German Confederation
created
–Closer economic ties
–Guarantee independence and
internal order of 39 member states
–Protect German monarchs
–Maintain status quo in each state
• Confederation loosely tied
together w/diet in Frankfurt
–Diplomatic congress, not lawmaking
–Members: delegates from various
state governments
–Austria dominated the confederation
–Prussia was largest state
• Had organized government
• Strong economy
• Political power in Junkers
• German States had large land
holdings=abundant goods
• But tariffs did not allow trade
among or beyond Prussian
boundaries
• 1834: Zollverein formed: Junkers’
economic union: reduced trade
barriers among German states
• Zollverein included most of
Germany except Austria and a few
minor states—Led by Prussia
• Benefits:
–Lower/uniform prices
–Improved
transportation/communication
–Common currency
–Uniform weights and measures
• 1861: William I becomes king of
Prussia
• Did not like liberal institutions
• Merely tolerated Prussian
assembly
• Liked military
• Planned to expand army
• Necessity for large army to
establish Prussian leadership
• Liberals in lower house disagreed
w/William I
• Wanted democratic principles to
gain support in Germany
• Junker-controlled upper house
passed bill to enlarge army;
rejected in liberal lower house
• Otto von Bismarck recruited by
William I
• Bismarck’s realpolitik: politics
based on practical, not theoretical
goals;
• Idea: to carry out king’s goals
• Bismarck believed in a strong
army to unite Germany
• Address to committee 1862
• Sept 30, 1862: “Germany is not
looking at Prussia’s liberalism, but
its power.” The great questions of
our time will not be decided by
speeches and majority decisions—
that was the mistake of 1848 and
1849—but by Blood and Iron.”
• Lower house refused to approve
army bill
• Bismarck dissolves parliament
• Raises taxes to get $ for army
• By 4th meeting of assembly, they
agree to Bismarck’s methods: a
new army is created
• Now, he needs an opportunity to
use this new army
• Schleswig-Holstein
• Schleswig and Holstein were
administered by Denmark as fiefs
• Holstein was entirely German
• Schleswig was a mix of Danes and
Germans
• New King of Denmark, Christian IX
wants to show power: merges
Schleswig and Holstein into
Denmark
• Bismarck sees this as a great
opportunity—to use new army
against a single enemy
• Austria reluctantly agrees to fight
• Bismarck said spoils of war would
be decided jointly afterwards
• Feb 1, 1864: Austrian-Prussian
forces enter Schleswig
• Prussian forces occupy some of
Denmark by Feb. 18th
• On March 11, an agreement was
reached
• April 25th: London Conference held
to discuss the outcome of the war.
• Austria/Prussia demand complete
independence for the duchies
• Bismarck wanted Kiel/Holstein;
• Austria would administer
Schleswig
• In newspapers, Bismarck turns the
tables on Austria; he prints that
Prussia gets Schleswig and
Austria gets Holstein and Kiel
(Where the Prussians want to
build a canal)
• Bismarck says that this is the best
territory and goads Austria into yet
another war
• Prior to the Austro-Prussian War of
1865, Bismarck takes steps to
strip Austria of her allies
• 1863: befriends Russia by helping
Alexander II put down a Polish
uprising
• 1865: Befriends France by telling
Napoleon III he would get possible
‘compensations’
• 1865: Italy—Bismarck negotiated
secret treaty with Italy against
Austria; if Italy sides w/Prussia,
they would get Venetia in return.
• During these negotiations, Austria
backs Augustenburg heir to throne
of Schleswig and Holstein
• Austria asks German
Confederation to take military
action in these territories
• Bismarck reacts: dissolves
Confederation and sends Prussian
army against Austria on June 15,
1866
• Seven Weeks’ War:
• Limited objectives and war
–Separate Austria from Germany
–End chance for united Germany
under Austria
–No harsh peace for Austria
• Treaty of Prague:
• Permanently dissolved German
Confederation
• Surrendered Holstein to Prussia
• Italy got Venetia
• France got nothing
• New organization of Germany
w/out participation of Austria
• New organization became North
German Confederation in 1867
• Included all German states north
of the Main River
• Constitution created: all states
remained self-governing
• Supremacy given to Prussian king
• Each state managed its own
domestic affairs
• Foreign policy and national
defense given to Prussia
• Legal authority in federal council
composed of representatives from
various governments
• Diet elected by universal suffrage
• Bismarck seen as hero for
German nationalists, but he’s not
done
• What to do about south??
• S. Catholics opposed/feared
Protestant Prussian military
strength
• France, Austria, Italy all opposed
united Germany in center of
Europe
• France is biggest obstacle for
Bismarck
• Would not accept united Germany
w/out compensation (Belgium) for
not joining 7 weeks’ war
• War w/France best course of
action for Bismarck—but France
had to be lured into war
• Bismarck took advantage of
Napoleon III’s weakness in foreign
policy
• French anti-German feelings
• 1870: excuse for war arises in
Spain: 1868 revolution had
deposed Queen Isabella; throne
offered to Prince Leopold of
Hohenzollern (Catholic cousin of
William I of Prussia)
• French feared Spanish-German
alliance
• Napoleon III protested Leopold’s
nomination
• Napoleon III sent a representative
to visit William I, vacationing at
Ems resort, asking William I to
order Leopold to reject the
Spanish throne; William I refused,
but Leopold withdrew his
acceptance to throne
• July 1870: French demand that no
Hohenzollern would sit on the
Spanish throne
• Word of this demand sent by
telegram from William I to
Bismarck
• Bismarck altered the Ems
telegram, making it appear as if
William I had insulted French
ambassador
• Anti-German articles were leaked
(by Bismarck) to the French
newspapers
• Napoleon III sick; does not want a
war; but French people demand
one; politically, he must fight
• July 19, 1870: France declares
war on Prussia
• Southern German states more
anti-French than anti-Prussian
• They decide to join Prussia in
fighting against France
• September I, 1870: Battle of
Sedan: Napoleon III is captured
• Paris under siege until January 28,
1871
• Jan 18, 1871: William I crowned
king of Germany in Hall of Mirrors
• Treaty of Paris
• France pays $1 billion in
indemnities to Germany for war
• France gave up Alsace and
Lorraine to pay reparations
• German Empire: 25 states united
into one Federal Union
• Set up like German Confederation
• Head of nat’l gov’t:
Kaiser=emperor
• Germany 1871-1914
• Kulturkampf: Bismarck’s struggle
w/Catholic Church
• Were German Catholics loyal to
empire or pope?
• Immediate causes of struggle:
Pope Pius IX condemned secular
authority
• Tries to strengthen authority over
Catholics
• 1864: Pius IX wrote Syllabus of
Errors condemning liberalism,
socialism, nationalism; claimed
Church control over all cultural and
educational aspects of Catholics
• Church declared independent of
State control
• 1870: 1st Vatican council declared
pope infallible regarding faith and
morals
• Catholicism in Germany controlled
Center Party in legislature; propapal attitude alarmed Protestant
majority
• Bismarck alarmed and joined the
Protestants; implemented a
campaign to rid Germany of
Jesuits in 1872
• 1873: legislation passed to destroy
Catholic influences in Germany
• MAY LAWS:
• Education of clergy controlled by
state
• Bishops deprived of authority
• Ended Church’s right of selfgovernment
• Dissolved religious orders
• Weddings administered by secular
officials
• Pope declared laws invalid
• Broke diplomatic ties w/Germany
• Threatened excommunication for
those obeying May laws
• Bismarck’s moves strengthen
center party
• Conservative Junkers also
opposed policies against religion
• 1878: Pope Pius IX died
• Pope Leo XIII reaches accord
w/Bismarck
• By 1881, most laws directed
towards Catholics were repealed
• Social reforms:
• 1882: compulsory health
insurance
• 1884: compulsory accident
insurance
• 1889: Social Security established
• Socialists were undercut by these
programs and they accept
Bismarck’s ideas
• Those who did not accept
Bismarck’s policies emigrated,
either to US or elsewhere in
Europe