PENGELOLAAN
RTH KOTA
Sumber:
Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 2007.
33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Urban forests in the coterminous United States are estimated to
produce ≈61 million metric tons (67 million tons) of oxygen annually,
enough oxygen to offset the annual oxygen consumption of
approximately two-thirds of the U.S. population. Although oxygen
production is often cited as a significant benefit of trees, this benefit is
relatively insignificant and of negligible value as a result of the large
oxygen content of the atmosphere. Other benefits of the urban forest
are more critical to environmental quality and human health than
oxygen production by urban trees.
. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban
Forestry 2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Urban vegetation, particularly trees, provides numerous benefits that
can improve environmental quality and human health in and around
urban areas. These benefits include improvements in air and water
quality, building energy conservation, cooler air temperatures,
reductions in ultraviolet radiation, and many other environmental and
social benefits (Nowak and Dwyer 2007).
1. Nowak, D.J., and J.F. Dwyer. 2007. Understanding the benefits and costs of urban forest ecosystems, pp. 25–46. In Urban
and Community Forestry in the Northeast. Kuser , J., Ed. Springer Science and Business Media, New York, NY.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Urban forests produce large amounts of oxygen. However, with the large
and relatively stable amount of oxygen in the atmosphere and extensive
production by aquatic systems, this tree benefit is relatively
insignificant.
Tree impacts on important atmospheric trace chemicals such as carbon
dioxide and air pollutants (ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead) will have greater
significant impacts on human health and environmental quality.
Urban forest carbon sequestration and air pollution removal along with
other environmental impacts of urban forests (e.g., water quality
improvement, lower air temperatures, reduced ultraviolet radiation
loads) need to be better incorporated within local and regional planning
efforts to improve environmental quality and enhance the quality of
urban life.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Oxygen Production by Trees
Net oxygen production by trees is based on the amount of oxygen produced during
photosynthesis minus the amount of oxygen consumed during plant respiration
(Salisbury and Ross 1978):
Photosynthesis: n(CO2) + n(H2O) + light → (CH2O)n + nO2
Respiration: (CH2O)n + nO2 → n(CO2) + n(H2O) + energy
If carbon dioxide uptake during photosynthesis exceeds carbon dioxide release by
respiration during the year, the tree will accumulate carbon (carbon sequestration).
Thus, a tree that has a net accumulation of carbon during a year (tree growth) also has
a net production of oxygen. The amount of oxygen produced is estimated from carbon
sequestration based on atomic weights:
net O2 release (kgyr) = net C sequestration (kgyr) × 3212
1.
Salisbury, F.B., and C.W. Ross. 1978. Plant Physiology. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont, CA. 422 pp.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Tree Biomass
The net amount of oxygen produced by a tree during a year is directly related to the
amount of carbon sequestered by the tree, which is tied to the accumulation of tree
biomass. Biomass for each measured tree was calculated using equations from the
literature with inputs of dbh and tree height (Nowak et al. 2002a).
Equations that predict aboveground biomass were converted to whole tree biomass
based on a belowground to aboveground ratio of 0.26 (Cairns et al. 1997).
Equations that compute fresh weight biomass were multiplied by species- or genusspecific conversion fac tors to yield dry weight biomass. These conversion factors,
derived from average moisture contents of species given in the literature, averaged
0.48 for conifers and 0.56 for hardwoods (Nowak 1994).
1. Cairns, M.A., S. Brown, E.H. Helmer, and G.A. Baumgardner. 1997. Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia 111:1–11.
2. Nowak,D.J. 1994. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest, pp. 83–94. In Chicago’s Urban Forest Ecosystem: Results
of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. McPherson, E.G., Nowak, D.J., and Rowntree, R.A., Eds. USDA Forest Service General Technical
Report NE-186, Radnor, PA.
3. Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, and M. Ibarra. 2002a. Brooklyn’s Urban Forest. General Technical Report NE- 290, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 107 pp.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Tree Biomass
Open-grown, maintained trees tend to have less aboveground biomass
than predicted by forest-derived biomass equations for trees of the
same diameter at breast height (Nowak 1994). To adjust for this
difference, biomass results for open-grown urban trees were multiplied
by a factor of 0.8 (Nowak 1994). No adjustment was made for trees
found in more natural stand conditions (e.g., vacant lands, forest
preserves). Because deciduous trees drop their leaves annually, only
carbon stored in woody biomass was calculated for these trees. Total
tree dry weight biomass (above- and belowground) was converted to
total stored carbon by multiplying by 0.5.
1.
Nowak,D.J. 1994. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest, pp. 83–94. In Chicago’s Urban
Forest Ecosystem: Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. McPherson, E.G., Nowak, D.J., and Rowntree,
R.A., Eds. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-186, Radnor, PA.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Pertumbuhan pohon kota dan penangkapan karbon
Rata-rata pertumbuhan diameter pohon dari rata-rata guna-lahan dan kelas diameter
ditambahkan pada diameter pohon saat sekarang (tahun ke X) untuk estimasi
diameter pohon tahun ke X+1 estimate tree diameter in year x + 1.
Untuk pohon kota dalam vegetasi hutan, rata-rata pertumbuhan dbh diperkirakan
sebesar 0.38 cm/ tahun (Smith and Shifley 1984); untuk pohon pada vegetasi taman
kota, rata-rata pertumbuhan dbh sebesar 0.61 cm/tahun (deVries 1987); untuk pohon
yang tumbuh di tempat yang lebih terbuka, laju pertumbuhan dbh didasarkan pada
hasil penelitian Nowak (1994).
Rata-rata pertumbuhan tinggi pohon dihitung berdasarkan pada formula Fleming
(1988) dan faktor pertumbuhan dbh untuk pohon ini bersifat spesifik.
1.
2.
3.
4.
deVries, R.E. 1987. A preliminary investigation of the growth and longevity of trees in Central Park. New Brunswick, NJ,
Rutgers University, MS thesis.
Fleming, L.E. 1988. Growth estimation of street trees in central New Jersey. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University. MS
thesis.
Nowak,D.J. 1994. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction by Chicago’s urban forest, pp. 83–94. In Chicago’s Urban
Forest Ecosystem: Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. McPherson, E.G., Nowak, D.J., and Rowntree,
R.A., Eds. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report NE-186, Radnor, PA.
Smith, W.B., and S.R. Shifley. 1984. Diameter Growth, Survival, and Volume Estimates for Trees in Indiana and Illinois.
Res. Pap. NC-257. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul,
MN.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Pertumbuhan pohon kota dan penangkapan karbon
Laju pertumbuhan pohon ditentukan oleh kondisi tajuk pohon. Faktor koreksinya
sebanding dengan persentase kematian tajuk ( semakin besar tingkat kematian tajuk,
laju pertumbuhan pohon semakin lambat) dan asumsinya adalah kematian tajuk
kurang dari 25% mempunyai pengaruh yang sangat kecil (dapat diabaikan) terhadap
laju pertumbuhan dbh.
Untuk pohon dnegan kondisi yang cukup baik (tingkat kematian tajuk kurang dari 25%),
tidak perlu koreksi laju pertumbuhan; untuk pohon yang kondisinya buruk ( tingkat
kematian tajuk 26% hingga 50%), laju pertumbuhan pohon dikalikan dengan faktor
0.76; untuk pohon yang kritis (tingkat kematian tajuk 51% - 75%) faktor koreksinya
0.42; pohon yang sedang mengalami kematian (tingkat kematian tajuk 76% - 99%)
faktor koreksinya 0.15; dan pohon yang mati faktor koreksinya 0.
Perbedaan estimasi simpanan karbon antara tahun ke X dan tahun ke X+1
merupakan jumlah neto karbon yang ditangkap dan disimpan setiap tahun.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Pertumbuhan pohon kota dan penangkapan karbon
Kematian pohon mengakibatkan pelepasan karbon yang tersimpan dalam biomasa
pohon.
Untuk estimasi jumlah karbon yang ditangkap oleh pohon kota setelah dekomposisi,
emisi karbon yang dihaislkan oleh dekomposisi bahan organik setelah pohon mati
harus dipertimbangkan. Untuk menghitung potensial pelepasan karbon dari kematian
pohon dan dekomposisi biomasanya, estimasi laju mortalitas tahunan sesuai dnegan
kondisi habitatnya dapat diperoleh dari penelitian mortalitas pohon-jalur hijau jalan
raya (Nowak 1986).
Mortalitas tahunan diestimasi sebesar 1.9% untuk pohon yang mempunyai dbh 0-3
inch dalam kondisi pertumbuhan yang bagus (tingkat kematian tajuk kurang dari
10%); 1.5% untuk pohon yang dbh nya lebih besar dari 3 inch pada kondisi yang bagus;
3.3% untuk pohon yang cukup baik (tingkat kematian tajuk 11% - 25%); 8.9% untuk
kondisi buruk; 13.1% untuk kondisi pohon kritis; 50% untuk pohon yang sedang
mengalami kematian; dan 100% untuk pohon yang mati.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Urban Tree Growth and Carbon Sequestration
.
Two types of decomposition rates were used:
1. Rapid release for aboveground biomass of trees that are projected to
be removed and
2. Delayed release for standing dead trees and tree roots of removed
trees.
Trees that are removed from urban sites are not normally developed
into wood products that provide for long-term carbon storage (i.e.,
removed trees are often burned or mulched); therefore, they will most
likely release their carbon relatively soon after removal.
. . Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United States. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry
2007. 33(3):220–226.
David J. Nowak, Robert Hoehn, and Daniel E. Crane. 2007
Urban Tree Growth and Carbon Sequestration
If dead trees are not removed annually, they have an increased probability of being measured in
the tree sample, and decomposition rates must reflect this difference. All trees on vacant,
transportation, and agriculture land uses, and 50% of trees in parks, were assumed to be left
standing (i.e., not removed) because these trees are likely within forest stands and/or away from
intensively maintained sites.
These trees were assumed to decompose over a period of 20 years. Data on tree decomposition
rates are limited. However, using decomposition rates from 10 to 50 years had little effect on
overall net decomposition within a single year. Trees on all other land uses were assumed to be
removed within 1 year of tree death.
For removed trees, aboveground biomass was assumed to be mulched with a decomposition
rate of 3 years; below-ground biomass was assumed to decompose in 20 years. Although no
mulch decomposition studies could be found, studies on decomposition reveal that 37% to 56%
of carbon in tree roots and 48% to 67% of carbon in twigs is released within the first 3 years
(Scheu and Schauermann 1994).
1.
Scheu, S., and J. Schauermann. 1994. Decomposition of roots and twigs: Effects of wood type (beech and ash),
diameter, site of exposure and macro fauna exclusion. Plant and Soil 163:13–24.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Pertumbuhan pohon kota dan penangkapan karbon
Estimasi emisi karbon dari dekomposisi biomasa pohon didasarkan pada peluang kematian
pohon di dalam tahun mendatang dan peluang pohon ditebang , dengan formula:
Emisi = C × Mc × Σpi((Dremove) + (Dstand))
Dremove = (pabyi)(1dm) + ((1−pab)yi)(1dr)
Dstand = ((yi−1)yi)(1dr)
Dimana :
Emisi = kontribusi individu pohon pada emisi karbon;
C = simpanan karbon pada tahun mendatang;
Mc = peluang mortalitas berdasarkan kelas-kondisi pertumbuhan pohon;
i = Kelas dekomposisi (berdasarkan pada jumlah tahun sebelum pohon mati atau ditebang);
pi = proporsi populasi pohon dalam landuse pada kelas dekomposisi i;
pab = proporsi biomasa bagian pohon di atas tanah;
yi = jumlah tahun sebelum pohon ditebang (yi → ∞ untuk pohon mati yang tidak pernah
ditebang (dekomposisi alamiah);
dm = Laju dekomposi untuk biomasa mulsa di atas tanah (3 tahun); dan
dr = Laju dekomposi untuk pohon hidup dan akar pohon (20 tahun).
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Konsumsi Oksigen Manusia
Rata-rata konsumsi oksigen orang dewasa sebesar 0.84 kg/hari (1.85
lb/day) (Perry dan LeVan, 2003) . Nilai ini digunakan untuk estimasi
berapa banyak konsumsi oksigen manusia dapat dipenuhi oleh
produksi oksigen hutan kota setiap tahun.
Untuk estimasi jumlah konsumsi oksigen manusia dapat dipenuhi oleh
hutan kota, produksi oksigen hutan kota dibagi dnegan rata-rata
konsumsi oksigen tahunan setiap orang.
1. Perry, J., and M.D. LeVan. 2003. Air Purification in Closed Environments: Overview of
Spacecraft Systems. U.S. Army Natrick Soldier Center. http://nsc.natick.army.mil/
jocotas/ColPro_Papers/Perry-LeVan.pdf.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Produksi oksigen oleh pohon ternyata beragam dengan ukuran pohon.
Berdasarkan data dari Minneapolis, Minnesota (Nowak et al., 2006b),
pohon yang mempunyai dbh 1–3 dapat memproduksi ≈2.9 kg O2/tahun
(6.4 lb O2/year); pohon-pohon dengan dbh 9–12 : 22.6 kg O2/tahun
(49.9 lb O2/year); pohon dnegan dbh 18–21 : 45.6 kg O2/tahun (100.5 lb
O2/year); pohon-pohon dnegan dbh 27–30 : 91.1 kg O2/tahun (200.8 lb
O2/year); dan pohon-pohon yang mempunyai dbh lebih dari 30 : 110.3
kg O2/tahun (243.2 lb O2/year).
1. Nowak, D.J., R. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens, and J.T. Walton. 2006b. Assessing Urban Forest Effects
and Values: Minneapolis’ Urban Forest. Resource Bulletin NE- 166. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. 20 pp.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Produksi oksigen merupakan salah satu dari manfaat-manfaat lingkungan yang
dihasilkan oleh pohon, dan pohon-pohon kota dapat menghasilkan sejumlah oksigen
yang signifikan. Akan tetapi, apakah produksi oksigen ini mampu menciptakan
manfaat lingkungan yang signifikan dibandingkan dnegan manfaat lingkungan lainnya,
seperti penangkapan karbon dan penyerapan polusi udara?
Di perkotaan Amerika Serikat, penangkapan karbon tahunan oleh hutan kota
diestimasi sebesar 22.8 juta metric tons (25.1 juta tons) yang nilainya setara dengan
≈$460 juta per tahun (Nowak dan Crane, 2002).
Penyerapan polusi udara di perkotaan Amerika Serikat diestimasi sebesar 711,000
metric tons (784,000 tons) yang nilainya setara $3.8 milyar setahun (Nowak et al.,
2006a).
1.
2.
Nowak, D.J., and D.E. Crane. 2002. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental
Pollution 116:381–389.
Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, and J.C. Stevens. 2006a. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4:115–123.
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Pohon kota dapat memperbaiki kualitas udara kota (Cardelino dan Chameides 1990;
Taha 1996; Nowak et al., 2000, 2006a).
Perubahan kecil pada kandungan polutan udara dapat berdampak besar terhadap
kualitas udara dan kesehatan manusia, sehingga efek-efek hutan kota terhadap polusi
udara sangat besar. Badan perlindungan lingkungan di Amerika Serikat (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency) telah menyatakan bahwa tutupan pohon kota
menjadi sarana potensial untuk membantu memperbaiki kualitas kualitas udara kota
sesuai dnegan baku mutu udara kota (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2004;
Nowak, 2005).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cardelino, C.A., and W.L. Chameides. 1990. Natural hydrocarbons, urbanization, and urban ozone. Journal of
Geophysical Research 95:13971–13979.
Nowak, D.J., K.L. Civerolo, S.T. Rao, G. Sistla, C.J. Luley, and D.E. Crane. 2000. A modeling study of the impact of urban
trees on ozone. Atmospheric Environment 34: 1610–1613.
Nowak, D.J., D.E. Crane, and J.C. Stevens. 2006a. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 4:115–123.
Nowak,D.J. 2005. Strategic tree planting as an EPA encouraged pollutant reduction strategy: How urban trees can
obtain credit in State Implementation Plans. Sylvan Communities. Summer/Fall:23–27.
Taha, H. 1996. Modeling impacts of increased urban vegetation on ozone air quality in the South Coast Air Basin.
Atmospheric Environment 30:3423–3430.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. Incorporating Emerging and Voluntary Measures in a State
Implementation Plan (SIP). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/
oarpg/t1/memoranda/evm_ievm_g.pdf
Nowak,D.J., R. Hoehn dan D.E. Crane. 2007. Oxygen Production by Urban Trees in the United
States. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry , 33(3):220–226.
Secara umum, pengaruh pohon-pohon terhadap polutan kimia mikro
dalam atmosfir (bahan kimia yang merupakan komponen mikro dari
keseluruhan atmosfir) akan mempunyai dampak relatif jauh lebih besar
terhadap kualitas lingkungan dan kesehatan manusia , dibandingkan
dengan bahan kimia seperti oksigen yang jumlahnya snagat besar
dalam atmosfir.
Perubahan yang relatif kecil pada polutan kimia mikro mempunyai
dampak signifikan terhadap kesehatan lingkungan dan kesehatan
manusia (misalnya dampak ozone, materi partikulat, oksida nitrogen,
dan oksida belerang) dan perubahan iklim (misalnya dampak CO2).
Drought and Oxidative Load in the Leaves of C3 Plants: a Predominant Role for
Photorespiration? . Ann Bot (2002) 89 (7): 841-850.
G. NOCTOR, S. VELJOVIC‐JOVANOVIC, S. DRISCOLL, L. NOVITSKAYA and C.H. FOYER. 2002.
Although active oxygen species are produced at high rates in both the chloroplasts and
peroxisomes of the leaves of C3 plants, most attention has focused on the potentially damaging
consequences of enhanced chloroplastic production in stress conditions such as drought. This
article attempts to provide quantitative estimates of the relative contributions of the chloroplast
electron transport chain and the glycolate oxidase reaction to the oxidative load placed on the
photosynthetic leaf cell. Rates of photorespiratory H2O2 production were obtained from
photosynthetic and photorespiratory flux rates, derived from steady‐state leaf gas exchange
measurements at varying irradiance and ambient CO2. Assuming a 10 % allocation of
photosynthetic electron flow to the Mehler reaction, photorespiratory H2O2 production would
account for about 70 % of total H2O2 formed at all irradiances measured. When chloroplastic
CO2 concentration rates are decreased, photorespiration becomes even more predominant in
H2O2 generation. At the increased flux through photorespiration observed at lower ambient CO2,
the Mehler reaction would have to account for more than 35 % of the total photosynthetic
electron flow in order to match the rate of peroxisomal H2O2 production. The potential signalling
role of H2O2 produced in the peroxisomes is emphasized, and it is demonstrated that
photorespiratory H2O2 can perturb the redox states of leaf antioxidant pools.
We discuss the interactions between oxidants, antioxidants and redox changes leading to
modified gene expression, particularly in relation to drought, and call attention to the potential
significance of photorespiratory H2O2 in signalling and acclimation.
Satoo, T. . 1962. Notes on Kittredge’s method of estimation of amount of leaves of forest
stand . Japan Forestry Soc., Vol. 44, 1962.
Satoo, T. 1966. Production and distribution of dry matter in forest ecosystems .Tokio Univ.
Forests., № 16, 1966..
Ada tiga metode yang terkenal untuk menduga biomasa tanaman (tegakan) hidup ,
yaitu (Satoo, 1962; Satoo, 1966):
1.
2.
3.
Metode rata-rata pohon, tidak cukup akurat, terutama untuk menilai biomasa
tahuj pohon, karena rata-rata pohon menurut diameternya ternyata tidak sama
dengan rata-rata pohon menurut indeks-indeks lainnya;
Metode hubungan luas-dasar pohon-model dengan populasi pohon, yang lebih
akurat dibandingkan dnegan metode (no 1) , karena dilakukan pemilihan yang
hati-hati pohon-model menurut diameter dan tinggi batang; panjang, kerapatan
dan diameter tajuk;
Metode Regresi, dianggap paling universal dan akurat. Pohon-model (pohon
sampel) dipilih sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat mewakili populasi pohon menurut
diameter batangnya, dan tinggi pohon.
. Atroschenko, O.A. 1999. Geographical information systems in forestry. Naukovyvisnyk NAU, №
20, Kyiv.
Existing methodologies for assessing phytomass components of trees and stands are
possible to separate by approaches:
1. Weight method involves weighing tree phytomass fractions in the forest and taking samples
for determining moisture content;
2. Stereometric method includes measuring volumetric indices of stem and branches with
further re-calculation to mass units using indices of wood and bark density;
3. Complex method combines weight and stereometric methods;
4. Pipe-model method is based on estimating components of tree crown phytomass based on
theories of balanced system of xylem water transport of plants;
5. Aerospace methods aim on finding stochastic relations between decoded tree and stand
indices and corresponding phytomass parameters;
6. Method of generalization rests upon analyzing published studies for different regions and
deriving needed normative for assessing separate fractions of phytomass and
bioproductivity of stands;
7. Use of GIS-systems and technologies is a rather new and high-technology method which is
based upon use of modern findings in the sphere of information technologies and GISsystems (Atroschenko, 1999).
Heinrich, D. and M. Hergt. 1998. Dtv-Atlas Ecology. 4 Haulage, 1998..
Mekanisme untuk menjaga stabilitas relatif suhu udara di bumi adalah radiasi
matahari dan efek rumah kaca. Sekitar 30% energi matahari (gelombang pendek) yang
mencapai bumu dipantulkan kembali ke ruang angkasa. Kalau energi sisanya (sekitar
70%), yang diserap sebagai radiasi infra-merah oleh uap air, awan dan tanah,
dipantulkan kembali ke ruang angkasa, maka suhu bumi akan sema dnegan -18 °С.
Refleksi radiasi infra-merah oleh bumi (terutama oleh uap air dan gas rumah kaca)
memanaskannya hingga sekitar 15 °С (ΔT = 33 °С).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Komposisi bahan kimia berikut mempunyhai efek pemanasan udara atmosfir :
Uap air ( sebesar 62%, 20,6°С);
Karbon dioxide (sebesar 21,8%, 7,2°С);
Ozone (sebesar 7,3%, 2,4°С);
Nitrous oxide (sebesar 4,2%, 1,4°С);
Methane (sebesar 2,4%, 0,8°С);
Fluoro-chloro-carbons (sebesar 2,1%, 0,7°С) (Heinrich dan Hergt, 1998).
1. Pasternak, V.P. 1990. Productivity control in artificial spruce stands of Carpathian mountains. Kyiv.
2. Lakyda, P.I. 1986. Growth and productivity models for artificial pine stands of Polesye of USSR.
Kyiv.
3. Lishchuk M.E. 1988. Growth and productivity of stands of softwood broadleaved tree species in
Ukrainian Polissya.Kharkiv.
Transformasi data dilakukan berdasarkan derivasi rata-rata tinggi pohon dari tinggi maksimum
yang diketahui dengan model regresi:
Pohon Norway spruce (Pasternak, 1990):
Untuk Pohon Scots pine (Lakyda , 1986):
Untuk pohon Birch (Lishchuk , 1988):
dimana :
Н – rata-rata tinggi suatu populasi tegakan;
Ht – tinggi maksimum populasi tegakan;
А – umur populasi tegakan.
Lakyda, P.I. 1997. Productivity of forest stands of Ukraine by components of aboveground
phytomass. Thesis (specialty 06.03.02 “Forest inventory and forest mensuration”. Kyiv.
Penangkapan karbon dan produksi oksigen dari hutan kota berkaitan
erat dengan produksi biomasa melalui fotosintesis.
Perhitungan penangkapan karbon dan produksi oksigen didasarkan pada
analisis data biomasa tanaman. Oleh karena itu diperlukan deskripsi
algoritma estimasi biomasa tegakan hutan dan karbon yang disimpan.
Algoritma ini telah diimplementasikan oleh Lakyda (1997) dalam Paket
Program CARBON (Lakyda, 1997).
1. Lakida, P. 1996. Forest phytomass estimation for Ukraine / WP-96-96. – Laxenburg, IIASA.
2. Lakida, P., Nilsson, S., Shvidenko, A. 1995. Estimation of forest phytomass for selected countries of the
former European USSR / WP-95-79. – Laxenburg, IIASA.
3. Lakida, P., Nilsson, S., Shvidenko, A. 1996.Forest Phytomass and Carbon in European Russia / WP-96-28.
–Laxenburg, IIASA.
4. Lakyda, P.I. 1997. Productivity of forest stands of Ukraine by components of aboveground phytomass:
abstract of Dr. Hab. Thesis (specialty 06.03.02 “Forest inventory and forest mensuration”. Kyiv.
The most adequate way to estimate phytomass and carbon sequestration of forests is
to use large scale data of standing stock and mathematical models. Practical
realization of this approach is tightly connected with finding coupling coefficients of
phytomass components and stem wood volume based upon experimental data, which
characterizes bioproductivity of modal forest stands (Lakyda, 1997).
Calculation of conversion coefficients of phytomass fractions to standing stock of
forest stands is shown below (Lakida, 1996; Lakida et al., 1995; Lakida et al., 1996):
Rv=Mfr/Vst
where :
Rv– conversion coefficient of fraction of stand phytomass (leaves, branches, rootsetc.)
to volume of stemwood, tons per cubicmeter;
Mfr – mass of certain fraction of stand phytomass, tons;
Vst – volume of stand stemwood over bark, m3.
Lakyda, P.I. 1997. Productivity of forest stands of Ukraine by components of aboveground
phytomass: abstract of Dr. Hab. Thesis (specialty 06.03.02 “Forest inventory and forest
mensuration”. Kyiv..
From this relation it was possible to estimate the fraction of stemwood
over bark:
Rv = Pst,
where : Rv signifies base density of each phytomass component.
This gave the possibility to control authenticity of sample data used for
calculation of conversion coefficients. Practical application of Rv in the
process of calculating phytomass components of forest stands is
expressed in following equation:
Mfr = Vst·Rv.
Lakyda, P.I. 1997. Productivity of forest stands of Ukraine by components of aboveground
phytomass: abstract of Dr. Hab. Thesis (specialty 06.03.02 “Forest inventory and forest
mensuration”. Kyiv..
Further estimation of overall phytomass of stands was accompanied
with calculation of conversion coefficients Rv for stand phytomass
components listed below (Lakyda, 1997):
Rv(f) – leaves (needles);
Rv(br) – branches (wood and bark of crown branches);
Rv(st) – stems (wood and bark of stems);
Rv(ab) – above ground phytomass of a stand;
Rv(bl) – below ground phytomass of a stand;
Rv(us)–phytomass of an understorey (undergrowth, understorey
(underwood), vegetation and their root systems).
Overal stand phytomass Rv(tot)is calculated as a sum of listed
components.
Lakyda, P.I. 1997. Productivity of forest stands of Ukraine by components of aboveground
phytomass: abstract of Dr. Hab. Thesis (specialty 06.03.02 “Forest inventory and forest
mensuration”. Kyiv..
Finding analytical relations of change in Rv coefficients, implemented in the
CARBON programme, of main phytomass components and mensurational indices
of stands was done for every tree species using multiple regression method.
Stand age (A), average height (H), average diameter (D), site index class (bonity index,
B) and relative stand density (P) were considered as independent variables.
Stand age and site index class were assumed to be main independent variables in Rv
models. Three kinds of allometric relations were used for modeling Rv coefficients:
Rv=b0Ab1Bb2exp(b3A),(6)
Rv= b0Ab1Bb2,(7)
Rv= b0Ab1,(8)
where :
А– average stand age, years;
В – site index class code;
b0, b1, b2, b3 – regression coefficients.
. Plant Physiol. Aug 2005; 138(4): 2292–2298.
Fractionation of the Three Stable Oxygen Isotopes by Oxygen-Producing and OxygenConsuming Reactions in Photosynthetic Organisms.
Yael Helman, Eugeni Barkan, Doron Eisenstadt, Boaz Luz, and Aaron Kaplan. 2005...
The triple isotope composition (δ17O and δ18O) of dissolved O2 in the ocean and in ice cores was
recently used to assess the primary productivity over broad spatial and temporal scales.
However, assessment of the productivity with the aid of this method must rely on accurate
measurements of the 17O/16O versus 18O/16O relationship in each of the main oxygen-producing
and -consuming reactions. Data obtained here showed that cleavage of water in photosystem II
did not fractionate oxygen isotopes; the δ18O and δ17O of the O2 evolved were essentially
identical to those of the substrate water. The fractionation slopes for the oxygenase reaction of
Rubisco and respiration were identical (0.518 ± 0.001) and that of glycolate oxidation was 0.503
± 0.002. There was a considerable difference in the slopes of O2 photoreduction (the Mehler
reaction) in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 (0.497 ± 0.004) and that of
pea (Pisum sativum) thylakoids (0.526 ± 0.001). These values provided clear and independent
evidence that the mechanism of O2 photoreduction differs between higher plants and
cyanobacteria. We used our method to assess the magnitude of O2 photoreduction in
cyanobacterial cells maintained under conditions where photorespiration was negligible. It was
found that electron flow to O2 can be as high as 40% that leaving photosystem II, whereas
respiratory activity in the light is only 6%. The implications of our findings to the evaluation of
specific O2-producing or -consuming reactions, in vivo, are discussed.
Function of Carbon Sequestration and Oxygen Release of Rubber Plantations and Its Value
Estimation.
Jiang Jusheng, Wang Rusong. 2002.
Acta Ecologica Sinica [2002, 22(9):1545-1551]
Rubber trees can not only produce rubber and high quality wood but also provide
significant ecological service that has been neglected for a long time. The ecological
service and its value of the rubber plantations were studied. The carbon sequestration
in the rubber tree was determined by means of biomass of mean rubber tree, and the
oxygen release was then derived based on the photosynthesis. The results showed
that the carbon sequestration from the atmosphere totaled 4.11 million tones/year
and that the oxygen release totaled 2.99 million tones/year. THe values of the CO_2
and O_2 were estimated RMB 123.8 billion yuan and RMB1.20 billion yuan when
calculated by using the methods of the carbon tax and the cost of oxygen production
respectively. The sum of the values was 28.7 times of that of their direct products
(such as rubber, timber, etc). The CO_2 sequestration of the rubber plantations was
4.7 times of that of the tropical rainforest.
The CO2 sequestration and O2 release of the rubber plantation in China has totaled
112.9 million tones and 82.1 million tones respectively over the last 50 years, which
has been playing important role in reducing the global green house effect.
Tahir,H.M.M dan T.A. Yousif. 2013. Modeling the effect of Urban Trees on Atmospheric Oxygen
Concentration in Khartoum State. Jour. of Nat. Res. and Env. Studies, 1 (2): 7-12.
Tahir dan Yousif (2013) melakukan penelitian efek pohon kota terhadap konsnetrasi
oksigen udara Kota Khartoum. Konsnetrasi oksigen udara kota dicatat selama
setahun. Pengukuran konsnetrasi oksigen secara spontan dilakukan secara simultan
pada lahan terbuka kosong dan di bawah pohon pada ketinggian 1.5 - 2 meter yang
mencerminkan lingkungan hidupnya manusia. Analisis regresi linear menggunakan
data konsnetrasi oksigen di bawah pohon sebagai peubah dependent dan
konsentrasi oksigen di lahan terbuka sebagai peubah independent.
Penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa kuantifikasi efek hutan kota terhadap konsnetrasi
oksigen udara kota dapat diketahui dengan cukup akurat menggunakan model
regresi empirik. Peningkatan konsentrasi oksigen udara kota di lokasi di bawah
tegakan pohon kota berkisar antara 0.2% - 0.9% di smeua lokasi.
Modeling the effect of Urban Trees on Atmospheric Oxygen Concentration in Khartoum State .
H.M. M. Tahir and T.A. Yousif. 2013.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, 1 (2): 7-12.
Trend graph for oxygen concentration (%) under the tree (O2sh) and in bare land (O2sun ) at Al
Kadaru
Modeling the effect of Urban Trees on Atmospheric Oxygen Concentration in Khartoum State .
H.M. M. Tahir and T.A. Yousif. 2013.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, 1 (2): 7-12.
O2sh
Relationship between atmospheric oxygen concentration (%) under the trees (O2sh) and in
bare land (O2sun ) in Khartoum state .
O2sun
Geochemical Journal, Vol. 38, pp. 77 to 88, 2004
Oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of tree-ring cellulose in a conifer-hardwood mixed forest in
northern Japan
T. NAKATSUKA, K. OHNISHI, T. HARA, A. SUMIDA, D. MITSUISHI, N. KURITA and S.UEMURA. 2004
. Oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios (δ18O and δ13C) were analyzed for cellulose extracted from
tree rings of 5 oak trees (Quercus crispula) and 4 fir trees (Abies sachalinensis) standing in a 1 ha
plot of a sub-boreal conifer-hardwood mixed forest, northern Japan. The δ18O variations were
well correlated between individual trees of Q. crispula (canopy trees) and A. sachalinensis
(recently grown-up sub-canopy trees), although A. sachalinensis had about 1‰ higher δ18O
values than Q. crispula on average and there was an apparent one-year phase lag between
δ18O variations of the two species. The similar inter-annual variation in δ18O among different
individuals and species suggests a common environmental control. Contrary to δ18O, the interannual variations in δ13C did not possess any common trends among individual trees for either
Q. crispula or A. sachalinesis, suggesting that the ecological effects, such as spatial
heterogeneities in δ13C and/or concentration of CO2 in canopy air and/or competition for light
with neighboring trees, regulate the δ13C of photosynthetic products in each tree. Seasonal
variations of the δ18O and δ13C within annual tree rings of Q. crispula showed random and
cyclic characteristics, respectively. The difference between the annual patterns of δ 18O and
δ13C supports the idea that δ18O is controlled by some environmental factors, which change
from year to year, but δ13C is primarily governed by physiological conditions of the tree itself,
which repeat regularly in every growing season.
Geochemical Journal, Vol. 38, pp. 77 to 88, 2004
Oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of tree-ring cellulose in a conifer-hardwood mixed forest in
northern Japan
T. NAKATSUKA, K. OHNISHI, T. HARA, A. SUMIDA, D. MITSUISHI, N. KURITA and S.UEMURA. 2004
The historical variation in
of tree-ring cellulose in Q. crispula has negative correlations
with those in both of winter and summer precipitation amounts, whereas it does not show any
relationship with temperature, probably due to multiple source areas of water vapor for the
precipitation at the studied area. Because the δ18O of precipitation in northern Japan is
positively correlated with air temperature, the correlation between δ 18O and winter
precipitation suggests that, in a year of heavy snowfall, the soil in this forest retains larger
amount of lower δ18O water derived from snowmelt, which is taken by roots of Q. crispula in
summer.
On the other hand, the negative correlation with summer precipitation cannot be elucidated by
the δ18O of rainfall, but must be explained by a higher relative humidity in the growing season
in a year of larger summer rainfall.
Our results confirm the potential of δ18O of tree-ring cellulose to reconstruct past climate in a
forest with a heavy snowfall, and suggest the importance of the hydrological knowledge in an
atmosphere-soil-plant system for the utilization of treering δ18O in paleoenvironmental
purposes.
. The influence of vegetation activity on the Dole effect and its implications for changes in
biospheric productivity in the mid-Holocene . Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 22 March 1999 vol. 266 no.
1419 627-632 .
D. J. Beerling. 1999.
The Dole effect is defined as the difference between the oxygen isotope composition of
atmospheric oxygen and seawater (currently 23.5 parts per thousand) and reflects the balance
between processes and fractionations associated with O2 consumption and production by the
terrestrial and marine biospheres. Isotopic records from ice cores and ocean sediments provide
a means of assessing variations in the Dole effect during the late Quaternary but the
biogeochemical interpretation of these changes is limited because we are currently unable to
account adequately for vegetation effects on the global isotopic balance of atmospheric O2.
Here, I show that the previously unquantified influence of canopy transpiration on the isotopic
composition of atmospheric water vapour now closes the mass balance budget for the isotopes
of atmospheric O2 under the current climate. Using this new finding, the effects of vegetation on
the Dole effect have been assessed at the global scale for the mid–Holocene (6000 years ago).
The results indicate that the small reduction in the Dole effect in the mid–Holocene represented
a fall in the ratio of terrestrial to marine gross primary production from 1.8 to 1.0. Improved
understanding of the environmental and physiological processes controlling the oxygen isotopic
composition of plants and their feedback on the isotopes of atmospheric O2 offers considerable
promise in quantitatively accounting for the changes in biospheric productivity associated with
the Dole effect over glacial–interglacial cycles. In addition, such work should provide an as yet
unexploited basis for testing the results of climate models against the oxygen isotope
composition of Quaternary plant fossils.
How many trees are needed to provide enough oxygen for one person?
Luis Villazon , Thursday 23rd August 2012
http://sciencefocus.com/qa/how-many-trees-are-needed-provide-enough-oxygen-one-person.
Trees release oxygen when they use energy from sunlight to make glucose from carbon
dioxide and water. Like all plants, trees also use oxygen when they split glucose back
down to release energy to power their metabolisms. Averaged over a 24-hour period,
they produce more oxygen than they use up; otherwise there would be no net gain in
growth.
It takes six molecules of CO2 to produce one molecule of glucose by photosynthesis,
and six molecules of oxygen are released as a by-product. A glucose molecule contains
six carbon atoms, so that’s a net gain of one molecule of oxygen for every atom of
carbon added to the tree. A mature sycamore tree might be around 12m tall and
weigh two tonnes, including the roots and leaves. If it grows by five per cent each year,
it will produce around 100kg of wood, of which 38kg will be carbon. Allowing for the
relative molecular weights of oxygen and carbon, this equates to 100kg of oxygen per
tree per year.
A human breathes about 9.5 tonnes of air in a year, but oxygen only makes up about
23 percent of that air, by mass, and we only extract a little over a third of the oxygen
from each breath. That works out to a total of about 740kg of oxygen per year.
. Tree Facts
http://www.americanforests.org/discover-forests/tree-facts/
Carbon sequestration, air quality, and climate change
1. A tree can absorb as much as 48 pounds of carbon dioxide per year,
and can sequester one ton of carbon dioxide by the time it reaches
40 years old.
2. One large tree can provide a supply of oxygen for two people.
Energy
1. According to the USDA Forest Service, “Trees properly placed around
buildings can reduce air conditioning needs by 30 percent and save
20-50 percent in energy used for heating.”
2. The net cooling effect of a young, healthy tree is equivalent to ten
room-size air conditioners operating 20 hours a day.
. Tree Facts
http://www.americanforests.org/discover-forests/tree-facts/
Water
1. In one day, one large tree can lift up to 100 gallons of water out of
the ground and discharge it into the air.
2. For every five percent of tree cover added to a community,
stormwater runoff is reduced by approximately two percent.
Recreation and Wildlife
1. Healthy trees provide wildlife habitat and contribute to the social
and economic well-being of landowners and community residents.
. Tree Facts
http://www.americanforests.org/discover-forests/tree-facts/
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
EPA Urban Heat Island Effects
Reduced energy use: Trees and vegetation that directly shade
buildings decrease demand for air conditioning.
Improved air quality and lower greenhouse gas emissions: By
reducing energy demand, trees and vegetation decrease the
production of associated air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions. They also remove air pollutants and store and sequester
carbon dioxide.
Enhanced storm water management and water quality: Vegetation
reduces runoff and improves water quality by absorbing and filtering
rainwater.
Reduced pavement maintenance: Tree shade can slow deterioration
of street pavement, decreasing the amount of maintenance needed.
Improved quality of life: Trees and vegetation provide aesthetic
value, habitat for many species, and can reduce noise
The Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Photosynthesis
By Bob Barber, eHow Contributor , last updated April 17, 2014
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/about_5459160_effect-temperature-ratephotosynthesis.html#ixzz3qGsExmtn
Plants produce sugar and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water and
sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a series
of chemical reactions. Heat speeds up chemical reactions by adding
kinetic energy to the reactants. Therefore, heat speeds up
photosynthesis, unless another factor, such as weak light, limits
photosynthesis.
However, there is a wild card. Too much heat destroys enzymes-complex proteins which greatly increase the rate of photosynthesis. So
heat speeds up photosynthesis---to a point. Once heat begins to destroy
enzymes, photosynthesis drastically slows.
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/about_5459160_effect-temperature-ratephotosynthesis.html#ixzz3qGs8SjGH
. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photosynthesis_and_respiration_X
_temperature_and_light_graph_(pl).png, Jiří Janoušek original image author, image modified by
Bob Barber, English text, explanations added
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/about_5459160_effect-temperature-ratephotosynthesis.html#ixzz3qGsa3mZ0
. Source of Oxygen Formed by Photosynthesis
By Jennifer Sobek, eHow Contributor
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/info_8602347_source-oxygen-formedphotosynthesis.html#ixzz3qGrpbDrj
Photosynthesis is the process that plants and some bacteria undergo by
using the energy from the sun to make sugar and oxygen. The glucose is
further converted into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), or the energy that
is used for all living things. The oxygen formed by photosynthesis comes
from the water that is introduced through the plant's roots.
The elements involved in photosynthesis are sunlight, water and carbon
dioxide. The water enters the plant through its roots and the carbon
dioxide gets into the plant through small openings in the leaves called
stomata. The photosynthetic reaction takes place within the
chloroplasts in the leaves. A chloroplast is the food producer of the cell
and can only be found in plant cells. Chloroplasts contain the green
pigment called chlorophyll, which gives a leaf its color.
. Source of Oxygen Formed by Photosynthesis
By Jennifer Sobek, eHow Contributor
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/info_8602347_source-oxygen-formedphotosynthesis.html#ixzz3qGrpbDrj
According to Dr. Mike Farabee, of Estrella Mountain Community College, the chemical
equation for the photosynthetic reaction that takes place is expressed as 6H2O + 6CO2
--> C6H12O6 + 6O2. Oxygen and glucose are the products of photosynthesis, while
water and carbon dioxide are the reactants.
Once the water enters the root, it travels up to the leaves through the plant cells called
xylem. Carbon dioxide isn't able to negotiate through the waxy layer that covers the
leaf, but it gets in through the stomata. By the same token, the oxygen that is
produced during photosynthesis leaves the leaf through the same stomata
For photosynthesis to occur, there must be sunlight. Without sunlight, there won't be
that energy that the chloroplasts need to stimulate the electrons. The series of
reactions that take place converts the energy into ATP and NADPH (a substance that
helps in the production of carbohydrates). The NADPH comes from the introduction of
carbon dioxide into the equation. A living organism isn't able to directly use the light
energy, but converts it into a C-C bond (a covalent carbon bond) through a series of
reactions
Zhang, X. , Zhou, P. , Zhang, W. , Zhang, W. dan Y.Wang. (2013). Selection of Landscape Tree
Species of Tolerant to Sulfur Dioxide Pollution in Subtropical China. Open Journal of Forestry, 3,
104-108.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major air pollutant, especially in developing countries. Many
trees are seriously impaired by SO2, while other species can mitigate air pollution by
absorbing this gas. Planting appropriate tree species near industrial complexes is
critical for aesthetic value and pollution mitigation. In this study, six landscape tree
species typical of a subtropical area were investigated for their tolerance of SO2:
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl., Ilex rotunda Thunb., Lysidice rhodostegia Hance,
Ceiba insignis (Kunth) P. E. Gibbs & Semir, Cassia surattensis Burm. f., and Michelia
chapensis Dandy. We measured net photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, leaf
sulfur content, relative water content, relative proline content, and other parameters
under 1.31 mg·m-3 SO2 fumigation for eight days. The results revealed that the six
species differed in their biochemical characteristics under SO2 stress. Based on these
data, the most appropriate species for planting in SO2 polluted areas was I. rotunda,
because it grew normally under SO2 stress and could absorb SO2.
F. Ramdani, "Extraction of Urban Vegetation in Highly Dense Urban Environment with
Application to Measure Inhabitants’ Satisfaction of Urban Green Space," Journal of Geographic
Information System, Vol. 5 No. 2, 2013, pp. 117-122. doi: 10.4236/jgis.2013.52012..
Urban environment has functioned not only for ecological reason but also for
socioeconomic function, due to this reason extraction of urban vegetation in highly
dense urban environment becomes more important to understand the inhabitants’
satisfaction of urban green space. With a medium resolution of satellite imagery, the
precision is very low. We used high resolution of WorldView-2 satellite to raise the
accuracy. We chose Depok City in West Java as a case study area, analyse four
multispectral bands, and apply TCT algorithm for getting vegetation density. The
relationship between vegetation density and inhabitants’ satisfaction was calculated
by Geo-statistical technique based on administrative boundary. We extracted three
types of urban vegetation density: good, mid and low. The final result shows that the
inhabitants are mostly satisfied with good density of urban vegetation in the city forest
inside Campus University of Indonesia.
D.J. NOWAK, R. E. HOEHN III, D.E. CRANE, J.C. STEVENS, dan C.L.FISHER. 2010.
Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values. Chicago Urban Forest
USDA FOREST SERVICE, 11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200, NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294.
An analysis of trees in Chicago, IL, reveals that this city has about 3,585,000 trees with
canopies that cover 17.2 percent of the area. The most common tree species are white
ash, mulberry species, green ash, and tree-of-heaven. Chicago’s urban forest currently
stores about 716,000 tons of carbon valued at $14.8 million. In addition, these trees
remove about 25,200 tons of carbon per year ($521,000 per year) and about 888 tons
of air pollution per year ($6.4 million per year). Trees in Chicago are estimated to reduce
annual residential energy costs by $360,000 per year. The structural, or compensatory,
value is estimated at $2.3 billion. Information on the structure and functions of the urban
forest can be used to inform urban forest management programs and to integrate urban
forests within plans to improve environmental quality in the Chicago area.
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Penyerapan polusi udara oleh pohon-pohon kota di Chicago diestimasi
dnegan menggunakan Model UFORE dengan data lapangan dan data
polusi jam-jaman , dat data cuaca selama tahun 2000 (Nowak et al.,
2010). Penyerapan polutan udara paling besar adalah ozone (O3), diikuti
oleh materi partikulat di bawah 10 microns (PM10), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), dan karbon monoxide (CO).
Pohon diestimasi mampu menyerap 888 ton polutan udara (CO, NO2,
O3, PM10, SO2) setiap tahun dnegan nilai setara dengan $6.4 juta.
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Rata-rata persentasi penyerapan polusi udara selama siang hari, pada
musim pohon berdaun lebah diestimasi sebesar:
• O3 0.45% • PM10 0.40%
• SO2 0.44% • NO2 0.27%
• CO 0.002%
Perbaikan kualitas lingkungan “Peak 1-hour” selama musim berdaun
untuk daerah-daerah yang banyak pohonnya, diestimasi sebesar:
• O3 13.4%
• PM10 9.9%
• SO2 14.1%
• NO2 6.3%
• CO 0.05%
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Penangkapan dan Simpanan Karbon
Climate change is an issue of global concern. Urban trees can help
mitigate climate change by sequestering atmospheric carbon (from
carbon dioxide) in tissue and by reducing energy use in buildings, and
consequently reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel based
power plants.
Trees reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by sequestering
carbon in new tissue growth every year. The amount of carbon annually
sequestered is increased with healthier trees and larger diameter trees.
Gross sequestration by trees in Chicago is about 25,200 tons of carbon
per year with an associated value of $521,000. Net carbon sequestration
in the Chicago urban forest is estimated at about 17,700 tons.
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Carbon storage by trees is another way trees can infl uence global climate change. As
trees grow, they store more carbon by holding it in their accumulated tissue. As trees
die and decay, they release much of the stored carbon back to the atmosphere.
Thus, carbon storage is an indication of the amount of carbon that can be released if
trees are allowed to die and decompose. Maintaining healthy trees will keep the
carbon stored in trees and when trees die, utilizing the wood in long-term wood
products or to help heat buildings or produce energy will help reduce carbon
emissions from wood decomposition or from power plants.
Trees in Chicago are estimated to store 716,000 tons of carbon ($14.8 million). Of all
the species sampled, silver maple stores and sequesters the most carbon
(approximately 14.8% of the total carbon stored and 10.7% of all sequestered
carbon).
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Trees Affect Energy Use in Buildings
Trees affect energy consumption by shading buildings, providing
evaporative cooling, and blocking winter winds. Trees tend to reduce
building energy consumption in the summer months and can either
increase or decrease building energy use in the winter months,
depending on the location of trees around the building. Estimates of
tree effects on energy use are based on fi eld measurements of tree
distance and direction to space-conditioned residential buildings.
Based on average state energy costs in February 2009, trees in Chicago
are estimated to reduce energy costs from residential buildings by
$360,000 annually. Trees are estimated to slightly increase the amount
of carbon released by fossil-fuel based power plants. However, this
estimated increase in emissions (1,200 tons) is more than offset by
annual carbon sequestration by trees (25,200 tons).
Nowak,D.J., R. E. Hoehn, D.E. Crane, J.C. Stevens dan C.L.Fisher. 2010. Assessing urban forest
effects and values. Usda forest service, 11 campus blvd suite 200, newtown square pa 190733294.
Urban vegetation can directly and indirectly affect local and regional
air quality by altering the urban atmospheric environment. Four main
ways that urban trees affect air quality are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Temperature reduction and other microclimatic effects
Removal of air pollutants
Emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and tree maintenance emissions
Energy conservation in buildings and consequent power plant emissions
The cumulative and interactive effects of trees on climate, pollution removal, and
VOC and power plant emissions determine the overall impact of trees on air
pollution.
Cumulative studies involving urban tree impacts on ozone have revealed that
increased urban canopy cover, particularly with low VOC emitting species, leads to
reduced ozone concentrations in cities. Local urban forest management decisions
also can help improve air quality.
. D.J. NOWAK, R. E. HOEHN III, D.E. CRANE, J.C. STEVENS, dan C.L.FISHER. 2010.
Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values.
USDA FOREST SERVICE, 11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200, NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294.
Urban forest management strategies to help improve air quality include:
Strategi
Alasan-alasannya
Increase the number of healthy trees
Peningkatan penyerapan polutan
Sustain existing tree cover
Maintain pollution removal levels
Maximize use of low VOC-emitting trees
Reduces ozone and carbon monoxide formation
Sustain large, healthy trees
Large trees have greatest per-tree effects
Use long-lived trees
Reduce long-term pollutant emissions from
planting and removal
Use low maintenance trees
Reduce pollutants emissions from maintenance
activities
Reduce fossil fuel use in maintaining vegetation
Reduce pollutant emissions
Plant trees in energy conserving locations
Reduce pollutant emissions from power plants
Plant trees to shade parked cars
Reduce vehicular VOC emissions
Supply ample water to vegetation
Enhance pollution removal and temperature
reduction
Plant trees in polluted or heavily populated areas
Maximizes tree air quality benefi ts
Avoid pollutant-sensitive species
Improve tree health
Utilize evergreen trees for particulate matter
Year-round removal of particles
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
With effective planning and management, urban trees and forests will provide a wide
range of important benefits to urbanites. These include a more pleasant, healthful,
and comfortable environment to live, work, and play in, savings in the costs of
providing a wide range of urban services, and substantial improvements in individual
and community wellbeing. Urban forestry plans should begin with consideration of the
contribution that trees and forests can make to people's needs.
Planning and management efforts should focus on how the forest can best meet those
needs. Past planning and management efforts have not been as effective as they might
have been because planners and managers have underestimated the potential
benefits that urban trees and forests can provide, and have not understood the
planning and management efforts needed to provide those benefits, particularly the
linkages between benefits and characteristics of the urban forest and its management.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
Physical/Biological Environment and Processes
Urban and community forests can strongly influence the physical/biological
environment and mitigate many impacts of urban development by moderating
climate, conserving energy, carbon dioxide, and water, improving air quality,
controlling rainfall runoff and flooding, lowering noise levels, harboring wildlife, and
enhancing the attractiveness of cities.
These benefits may be partially offset by problems that vegetation can pose such as
pollen production, hydrocarbon emissions, green waste disposal, water consumption,
and displacement of native species by aggressive exotics .
Urban forests can be viewed as a "living technology," a key component of the urban
infrastructure that helps maintain a healthy environment for urban dwellers.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
Air quality.
Trees exchange gases with the atmosphere and capture particulates
that can be harmful to people. The rate at which trees remove gaseous
pollutants such as ozone, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide
depends primarily on the amount of foliage, number and condition of
the stomata, and meteorological conditions.
Results from computer studies indicate that trees can reduce
appreciably the amount of ozone in polluted air. Pine trees in Los
Angeles were projected to remove from the atmosphere (under 400
meters) about 8% of the ozone and decrease the concentration around
the leaves by 49% (Rich, 1971).
1. Rich, S. 1971. Effects of trees and forests in reducing air pollution, pp. 29-34. In Little, S and J.H. Noyes
(eds) Trees and Forests in an Urbanizing Environment. USDA Cooperative Extension Service, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
Urban hydrology.
Urban forests can play an important role in urban hydrologic processes
by reducing the rate and volume of stormwater runoff, flooding damage,
stormwater treatment costs, and water quality problems. Runoff
estimates for an intensive storm event in Dayton, Ohio showed that the
existing tree canopy reduced potential runoff by 7% and a modest
increase in canopy cover would reduce runoff by nearly 12% (Sanders,
1984).
Runoff reductions could be further enhanced by directing runoff to
landscape plantings.
1. Sanders, R.A. 1984. Urban vegetation impacts on the urban hydrology of Dayton Ohio. Urban
Ecol. 9:361 -376.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
URBAN HYDROLOGY
By reducing runoff, trees function like retention/ detention structures
that are essential to many communities. Savings in stormwater
management costs from trees in Tucson were calculated at $0.18 per
tree per year or $600,000 over 500,000 trees and 40 years (McPherson,
1991).
Reduced runoff due to rainfall interception can also reduce stormwater
treatment costs in many communities.
1. McPherson, E.G. 1991. Economic modeling for large scale tree plantings. In E. Vine, D. Crawley, and P.
Centolella (Eds). Energy Efficiency and the Environment: Forging the Link, Chapter 19, American Council
for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington DC.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
URBAN HYDROLOGY
Water use by landscape vegetation is an important issue in arid and semi-arid
regions where water resources are increasingly scarce; but also in other areas where
drought can bring about restrictions on watering. We know that annual water costs
can be twice as great as cooling energy savings from shade for high water use species
such as mulberry (McPherson and Dougherty, 1989.).
However, energy savings have the indirect effect of conserving water at power
plants. In Tucson, 16% of the annual irrigation requirement for each tree was offset
by water conserved at the power plant due to energy savings provided by the tree.
1.
McPherson, E.G. and E. Dougherty. 1989. Selecting trees for shade in the
Southwest. J. Arboric. 15:35-43.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234.
Noise reduction.
Field tests have shown that properly designed plantings of trees and shrubs
significantly reduce noise. Wide belts of tall dense trees combined with soft ground
surfaces can reduce apparent loudness by 50% or more (Cook, 1978; Reethof dan
McDaniel, 1978. )
Noise reduction from plantings along roadsides in urbanized areas is often limited
due to narrow roadside planting space. Buffer plantings in these circumstances are
typically more effective at screening views than reducing noise.
1. Cook, D.I. 1978. Trees, solid barriers, and combinations: Alternatives for noise control, pp. 330-339. In
Hopkins, G. (ed.) Proceedings of the National Urban Forestry Conference, USDA Forest Service, State
University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY.
2. Reethof, G. and O.H. McDaniel. 1978. Acoustics and the urban forest, pp. 321-329. In Hopkins, G. (ed.)
Proceedings of the National Urban Forestry Conference, USDA Forest Service, State University of New
York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Ecological benefits.
Urban forests promote ecological stability by providing
habitat for wildlife, conserving soil, and enhancing
biodiversity. Although the value of these benefits is seldom
quantified, they are important to many urban dwellers and to
the long term stability of urban ecosystems. Surveys have
found that most citydwellers enjoy and appreciate wildlife in
their day to day lives (Shaw, Magnum dan Lyons. 1985).
1. Shaw, W.W., Magnum, W.R., and J.R. Lyons. 1985. Residential enjoyment of wildlife resources
by Americans. Leis. Sci. 7:361-375.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Ecological benefits.
To enhance wildlife habitat, numerous communities havedeveloped
programs to preserve valuable existing natural areas and to restore the
habitat on degraded lands. For example, restoration of urban riparian
corridors and their linkages to surrounding natural areas have
facilitated the movement of wildlife and dispersal of flora. Usually
habitat creation and enhancement increases biodiversity and
complements many other beneficial functions of the urban forest
(Johnson, Barker dan Johnson, 1990).
1.
Johnson, C.W., F.S.Barker and W.S. Johnson. 1990. Urban and Community Forestry.
USDA Forest Service, Ogden UT.
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
With effective planning and management, urban trees and forests will
provide a wide range of important benefits to urbanites.
These include a more pleasant, healthful, and comfortable environment
in which to live, work, and play, savings in the costs of providing a wide
range of urban services, and substantial improvements in individual and
community well-being (Dwyer, et al., 1992)..
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Urban forests can enhance the city environment by influencing
temperature, wind, humidity, rainfall, soil erosion, flooding, air quality,
scenic quality, and plant and animal diversity. Each of these influences
has significant implications for the well-being of urbanites. But there are
also environmental problems that may be associated with the urban
forest, such as the generation of pollen, hydrocarbons, and green waste;
water and energy consumption; obscured views; and displacement of
native species of plants (Dwyer, et al., 1992)..
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
A well planned and managed urban forest can reduce costs for heating
and cooling, health care, driving to exurban areas for recreation and
leisure, stormwater management, and damage from flooding, erosion,
and polluted air. Substantial increases in revenues can also be
associated with urban trees and forests, including the sale of real estate
(individual gains), real estate and business taxes (government gains),
and tourism (individuals and government may gain). Costs associated
with urban forests include establishment and care of the forest; repair
of forest-induced damage to other parts of the urban infrastructure
(particularly sidewalks and utilities); blocked solar collectors, and
foregone opportunities for activities such as gardening and sports
(Dwyer, et al., 1992)..
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Many important benefits and costs of urban forests that contribute
significantly to the wellbeing of urbanites are not easily reflected in
dollars and cents. Psychological benefits associated with urban forests
include more pleasant environments for a wide range of activities,
improvements in the esthetic environment (sights, sounds, smells),
relief from stress (which can lead to improved physical health),
enhanced feelings and moods, increased enjoyment of everyday life,
and a stronger feeling of connection between people and their
environment. Psychological costs can include fears of crime, animals,
insects, disease (i.e., Lyme disease), darkness, and falling trees or limbs;
and the displeasure of messiness and clutter (Dwyer, et al., 1992).
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Benefits attributed to urban trees and forests extend beyond individuals
to society. Societal benefits include a stronger sense of community,
empowerment to improve neighborhood conditions, promotion of
environmental responsibility and ethics, and enhanced economic
development (business, commerce, employment). Societal costs include
money and other resources that must be diverted from other social
programs (Dwyer, et al., 1992).
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Urban forestry plans should begin with consideration of the contribution
that trees and forests can make to people's needs. Planning and
management efforts should focus on how the forest can best meet
those needs. Past planning and management efforts have not been as
effective as they might have been because planners and managers have
underestimated the potential benefits that urban trees and forests can
provide, and have not understood the planning and management efforts
needed to provide those benefits, particularly the linkages between
benefits and characteristics of the urban forest and its management
(Dwyer, et al., 1992)..
J.F. Dwyer, E. G.McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992.
ASSESSING THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE URBAN FOREST. Journal of Arboriculture 18(5):
227-234..
Urban trees and forests promise to be even more consequential in the
years ahead. Increasing interest in cost-effective and "minimum impact“
approaches for improving the quality of the urban environment suggests
that trees will play increasingly important roles in efforts to enhance
airquality and improve urban hydrologic processes.
Worldwide concern for "global warming" suggests increasing interest in
trees for sequestering carbon and reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
Associated concern for efficient use of energy resources will bring
increasing attention to trees as a means of reducing heating and cooling
costs as well as for encouraging urbanites to spend leisure time in the
urban environment rather than driving to more remote areas. As we
learn more about the functioning of the urban ecosystem and the role
of trees and forests in that system, it is likely that these resources will
assume new roles in efforts to manage the urban environment. (Dwyer,
et al., 1992)..
T.Shakeel and T.M. Conway, 2014. Individual households and their trees: Fine-scale
characteristics shaping urban forest. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 01/2014; 13(1):136-144.
In urban areas, the pattern of trees is often a result of municipal policy, built form,
neighborhood socioeconomic conditions, and the actions of local actors. Recent research has
focused on the role of neighborhood socioeconomics, and begun to explore the underlying
causes of uneven distributions of urban forests associated with different socioeconomic groups.
To date, little work has explored property-level tree conditions in relation to disaggregated
household characteristics and actions, yet the household is the scale where most decisions
about residential tree planting and care are made. This study examines the role of property-level
built conditions, household socioeconomics, and residents’ actions and attitudes in relation to
property-level canopy cover and tree density. The study area is four neighborhoods in the City of
Mississauga (ON, Canada). Regression analyses were conducted to explore significant variables
related to the two tree measures for all properties together and separately by neighborhood.
The results indicate that property conditions and residents actions are more important in
relation to tree variations than socioeconomic factors. Additionally, several significant factors
have opposite relationships with percent canopy cover and tree density. These results highlight
the need to consider property-level built conditions, residents’ actions, and multiple measures
of the urban forest to better understand the patterns of trees in cities.
. K.Perini, and A. Magliocco. 2014. Effects of vegetation, urban density, building height, and
atmospheric conditions on local temperatures and thermal comfort . Urban Forestry & Urban
Greening 01/2014.
This paper shows the effects of several variables, which co-cause the Urban Heat Island effect
on temperature distribution and outdoor thermal comfort (by using the Predicted Mean Vote,
PMV) on dense urban environments. The study is conducted by means of a three-dimensional
microclimate model, ENVI-met 3.1, which forecasts the microclimatic changes within urban
environments. The effects of building density (% of built area) and canyon effect (building
height) on potential temperature, mean radiant temperature, and Predicted Mean Vote
distribution are quantified. The influence of several types of green areas (vegetation on the
ground and on roofs) on temperature mitigation and on comfort improvements is investigated
for different atmospheric conditions and latitudes in a Mediterranean climate. The research
quantifies the effects of the variables investigated on temperature distributions and in
determining outdoor comfort conditions. Vegetation on the ground and on roofs mitigates
summer temperatures, decreases the indoor cooling load demand, and improves outdoor
comfort. The results of the study demonstrate that density and height of buildings in a city area
influence potential temperature, mean radiant temperature, and Predicted Mean Vote
distribution; for most of the cases examined higher density causes higher temperatures and
with taller buildings vegetation has higher cooling effects. Considering the cooling effect of
vegetation, a difference can be noticed depending on the amount of green areas and vegetation
type. The results of this study show also that vegetation is more effective with higher
temperatures and lower relative humidity values in mitigating potential temperatures, mean
radiant temperatures, and PMV and in decreasing the cooling load demand.
Jim, C.Y. and W.Y.Chen. 2009. Ecosystem services and valuation of urban forests in China. Cities,
26 (4): 187-194 .
Urban forests are integral components of urban ecosystems, which could generate significant
ecosystem services, such as offsetting carbon emission, removing air pollutants, regulating the
microclimate, and recreation. These ecosystem services contribute to improving environmental
quality, quality of life, and sustainable urban development. Despite a long history of inserting
vegetation in human settlements in China, modern scientific study of this natural-cum-cultural
resource did not start until the 1990s. Specifically, the identification and valuation of ecosystem
services provided by urban forests are relatively new but fast growing research fields. This paper
reviews studies on the major ecosystem services provided by urban forests in China, including
microclimatic amelioration (mainly evapotranspiration-cooling effects), carbon dioxide
sequestration, oxygen generation, removal of gaseous and particulate pollutants, recreational
and amenity. Various valuation techniques have been applied, most of which are still at the
embryonic stage. There are rooms to improve the research scope and methods. Some pertinent
research gaps and implications on current and future development of urban forestry in China
were distilled from the research findings.
Lafortezza,R.R., C. G.Giuseppe, S.G.Giovanni and C.C.Davies. 2009. Benefits and well-being
perceived by people visiting green spaces in periods of heat stress. Urban Forestry and Urban
Greening, 8 (2): 97-108.
In urban environments, green spaces have proven to act as ameliorating factors of
some climatic features related to heat stress, reducing their effects and providing
comfortable outdoor settings for people. In addition, green spaces have demonstrated
greater capacity, compared with built-up areas, for promoting human health and wellbeing. In this paper, we present results of a study conducted in Italy and the UK with
the general goal to contribute to the theoretical and empirical rationale for linking
green spaces with well-being in urban environments. Specifically, the study focused on
the physical and psychological benefits and the general well-being associated with the
use of green spaces on people when heat stress episodes are more likely to occur. A
questionnaire was set up and administered to users of selected green spaces in Italy
and the UK (n=800). Results indicate that longer and frequent visits of green spaces
generate significant improvements of the perceived benefits and well-being among
users. These results are consistent with the idea that the use of green spaces could
alleviate the perception of thermal discomfort during periods of heat stress
Helena , N., H.Terry , C.M.Hagerhall , L.A.G. Fry . 2009. . Components of small urban parks that
predict the possibility for restoration. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 8 (4): 225-235.
In densifying cities, small green spaces such as pocket parks are likely to become more
important as settings for restoration. Well-designed small parks may serve restoration
well, but earlier research on restorative environments does not provide detailed
information about the specific components of the physical environment that support
restoration. In this study we assessed the extent to which hardscape, grass, lower
ground vegetation, flowering plants, bushes, trees, water, and size predicted the
judged possibility for restoration in small urban green spaces. We took individual parks
as the units of analysis. The parks were sampled from Scandinavian cities, and each
park was represented by a single photo. Each photo was quantified in terms of the
different objective park components and also rated on psychological variables related
to restoration. The ratings on the psychological variables being away, fascination,
likelihood of restoration, and preference were provided by groups of people familiar
with such parks. The variables most predictive of the likelihood of restoration were the
percentage of ground surface covered by grass, the amount of trees and bushes visible
from the given viewing point, and apparent park size. Formal mediation analyses
indicated distinctive patterns of full and partial mediation of the relations between
environmental components and restoration likelihood by being away and fascination.
Our results provide guidance for the design of small yet restorative urban parks.
. Nagendra,H. and D.Gopal . 2010. Street trees in Bangalore: Density, diversity, composition
and distribution. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (2): 129-137.
Once renowned as India's "garden city", the fast growing southern Indian city of
Bangalore is rapidly losing tree cover in public spaces including on roads. This study
aims to study the distribution of street trees in Bangalore, to assess differences in tree
density, size and species composition across roads of different widths, and to
investigate changes in planting practices over time. A spatially stratified approach was
used for sampling with 152 transects of 200 m length distributed across wide roads
(with a width of 24 m or greater), medium sized roads (12-24 m) and narrow roads
(less than 12 m). We find the density of street trees in Bangalore to be lower than
many other Asian cities. Species diversity is high, with the most dominant species
accounting for less than 10% of the overall population. Narrow roads, usually in
congested residential neighborhoods, have fewer trees, smaller sized tree species, and
a lower species diversity compared to wide roads. Since wide roads are being felled of
trees across the city for road widening, this implies that Bangalore's street tree
population is being selectively denuded of its largest trees. Older trees have a more
diverse distribution with several large sized species, while young trees come from a
less diverse species set, largely dominated by small statured species with narrow
canopies, which have a lower capacity to absorb atmospheric pollutants, mitigate
urban heat island effects, stabilize soil, prevent ground water runoff, and sequester
carbon. This has serious implications for the city's environmental and ecological
health. These results highlight the need to protect large street trees on wide roads
Hamada,S.S. and T. Ohta. 2010. Seasonal variations in the cooling effect of urban green areas
on surrounding urban areas. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (1): 15-24.
We measured air temperature in an urban green area that includes forest and
grassland and in the surrounding urban area for a full year in Nagoya, central Japan, to
elucidate seasonal variations of the difference in air temperature between urban and
green areas. We determined the range of the "cool-island" effect as well as the
relationship between vegetation cover and air temperature throughout the year. The
temperature difference between urban and green areas was large in summer and
small in winter. The maximum air temperature difference was 1.9 °C in July 2007, and
the minimum was -0.3 °C in March 2004. The difference was larger during the day than
during the night in summer, whereas in winter the opposite relationship was true.
However, winter diurnal variation was not particularly noticeable, a behaviour thought
to be related to reduced shading by deciduous trees in the green area. During the
night, the cooling effect of the green area reached 200-300 m into the urban area.
During the day, the cooling effect between August and October 2006 exceeded 300 m
and varied widely, although there was no correlation beyond 500 m. The correlation
between air temperature and forest-cover ratio within a radius of 200 m from each
measurement site was significant from 16:00 to 19:00. There was also a correlation
during the night; this correlation was weakest in the early morning. The effect of the
forest-cover ratio on air temperature was most pronounced in August 2006 and June
2007.
Stoffberg, G. H., Van Rooyen, M.W.W., Van Der Linde, M.J., Groeneveld, T.H.T. 2010. Carbon
sequestration estimates of indigenous street trees in the City of Tshwane, South Africa.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (1): 9-14.
Amelioration of global warming presents opportunities for urban forests to act as carbon sinks,
and thereby could possibly be included in the potential future carbon trade industry. The City of
Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality provided a strategy in 2002 to plant 115,200 indigenous
street trees in the period 2002-2008. These trees hold a monetary carbon value in their
potential future growth. In order to calculate the carbon sequestration potential, the growth
rates of Combretum erythrophyllum, Searsia lancea and Searsia pendulina were determined.
Combined species growth regressions of C. erythrophyllum-S. lancea and S. lancea-S. pendulina
are also presented. Combretum erythrophyllum has the fastest growth rate while those of S.
lancea and S. pendulina are slower. The results from growth regression relationships were used
in a generic allometric biomass regression to calculate the carbon sequestration rate of each
species, which was extrapolated to determine the total quantity of carbon to be sequestrated by
the street trees over a 30-year period (2002-2032). It is estimated that the tree planting will
result in 200,492 tonnes CO2 equivalent reduction and that 54,630 tonnes carbon will be
sequestrated. The carbon dioxide reductions could be valued at more than US$ 3,000,000. But
this estimate should also be viewed in the context of the limitations presented in this study. This
illustrates that when future carbon trade becomes operational for urban forests these forests
could become a valuable source of revenue for the urban forestry industry, especially in
developing countries.
Onishi,A., Cao, X., Ito, T., Shi, F. , and H.Imura. 2010. Evaluating the potential for urban heatisland mitigation by greening parking lots. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (4): 323-332.
Artificial urban land uses such as commercial and residential buildings, roads, and
parking lots covered by impervious surfaces can contribute to the formation of urban
heat islands (UHIs), whereas vegetation such as trees, grass, and shrubs can mitigate
UHIs. Considering the increasing area of parking lots with little vegetation cover in
Nagoya, Japan, this study evaluated the potential for UHI mitigation of greening
parking lots in Nagoya. The relationships between land surface temperature (LST) and
land use/land cover (LULC) in different seasons were analyzed using multivariate linear
regression models. Potential UHI mitigation was then simulated for two scenarios: (1)
grass is planted on the surface of each parking lot with coverage from 10 to 100% at an
interval of 10% and (2) parking lots are covered by 30% trees and 70% grass. The
results show that different LULC types play different roles in different seasons and
times. On average, both scenarios slightly reduced the LST for the whole study area in
spring or summer. However, for an individual parking lot, the maximum LST decrease
was 7.26 °C in summer. This research can help us understand the roles of vegetation
cover and provide practical guidelines for planning parking lots to mitigate UHIs
Lo, A. and C.Y.Jim . 2010.. Willingness of residents to pay and motives for conservation of urban
green spaces in the compact city of Hong Kong. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (2): 113120.
People attach multiple values to urban green spaces which play varied roles in cities.
Properly designed monetary valuation surveys can ascertain their non-market value
and underlying motives. This study investigates Hong Kong residents' recreational use
of urban green spaces and assesses the monetary value of these areas. A total of 495
urban residents from different neighbourhoods and socio-economic groups were
interviewed. About 70% of the respondents visited urban green spaces at least weekly.
Major companions during patronage were family members and then children.
Exercises and clean air topped the list of visit purposes. The recreational pattern is
associated with the cramped private living condition that pushes people to public
open areas which are construed as extension of home space. The valuation question
solicited overwhelming support, with over 80% of the respondents willing to pay to
recover a possible loss of urban green spaces area by 20%. It yielded a monthly
average payment of HK$77.43 (approx. 9.90 USD) per household for five years. Noninstrumental aspects played some role in the respondents' bidding decision. The
findings could assist green space planning and nature conservation, and hinted the
need to consider the pluralistic community views and expectations in relevant public
policies.
Liu, C. and X. Li. 2012. . Carbon storage and sequestration by urban forests in Shenyang, China.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11 (2): 121-128.
Urban forests can play an important role in mitigating the impacts of climate change by reducing
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2). Quantification of carbon (C) storage and sequestration by
urban forests is critical for the assessment of the actual and potential role of urban forests in
reducing atmospheric CO 2. This paper provides a case study of the quantification of C storage
and sequestration by urban forests in Shenyang, a heavily industrialized city in northeastern
China. The C storage and sequestration were estimated by biomass equations, using field survey
data and urban forests data derived from high-resolution QuickBird images. The benefits of C
storage and sequestration were estimated by monetary values, as well as the role of urban
forests on offsetting C emissions from fossil fuel combustion. The results showed that the urban
forests in areas within the third-ring road of Shenyang stored 337,000t C (RMB92.02 million, or $
13.88 million), with a C sequestration rate of 29,000t/yr (RMB7.88 million, or $ 1.19 million).
The C stored by urban forests equaled to 3.02% of the annual C emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, and C sequestration could offset 0.26% of the annual C emissions in Shenyang. In
addition, our results indicated that the C storage and sequestration rate varied among urban
forest types with different species composition and age structure. These results can be used to
help assess the actual and potential role of urban forests in reducing atmospheric CO 2 in
Shenyang. In addition, they provide insights for decision-makers and the public to better
understand the role of urban forests, and make better management plans for urban forests.
. Cameron, W.F.R. , T. Blanuša, J.E.Taylor, A.Salisbury, A.J.Halstead, B.Henricot and K.Thompson .
2012. The domestic garden - Its contribution to urban green infrastructure. Urban Forestry and
Urban Greening, 11 (2): 129-137.
Domestic gardens provide a significant component of urban green infrastructure but their
relative contribution to eco-system service provision remains largely un-quantified. 'Green
infrastructure' itself is often ill-defined, posing problems for planners to ascertain what types of
green infrastructure provide greatest benefit and under what circumstances. Within this context
the relative merits of gardens are unclear; however, at a time of greater urbanization where
private gardens are increasingly seen as a 'luxury', it is important to define their role precisely.
Hence, the nature of this review is to interpret existing information pertaining to
gardens/gardening . per se, identify where they may have a unique role to play and to highlight
where further research is warranted. The review suggests that there are significant differences
in both form and management of domestic gardens which radically influence the benefits.
Nevertheless, gardens can play a strong role in improving the environmental impact of the
domestic curtilage, e.g. by insulating houses against temperature extremes they can reduce
domestic energy use. Gardens also improve localized air cooling, help mitigate flooding and
provide a haven for wildlife. Less favourable aspects include contributions of gardens and
gardening to greenhouse gas emissions, misuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and introduction of
alien plant species. Due to the close proximity to the home and hence accessibility for many,
possibly the greatest benefit of the domestic garden is on human health and well-being, but
further work is required to define this clearly within the wider context of green infrastructure.
Soares,A. L., F.C.Castro Rego, E.G. McPherson, J.R.Simpson, P.J. Peper and Q. Xiao.
2011.Benefits and costs of street trees in Lisbon, Portugal. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,
10 (2): 69-78.
It is well known that urban trees produce various types of benefits and costs. The
computer tool i-Tree STRATUM helps quantify tree structure and function, as well as
the value of some of these tree services in different municipalities. This study
describes one of the first applications of STRATUM outside the U.S. Lisbon's street
trees are dominated by Celtis australis L., Tilia spp., and Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don,
which together account for 40% of the 41,247 trees. These trees provide services
valued at $8.4 million annually, while $1.9 million is spent in their maintenance. For
every $1 invested in tree management, residents receive $4.48 in benefits. The value
of energy savings ($6.20/tree), CO2 reduction ($0.33/tree) and air pollutant deposition
($5.40/tree) were comparable to several other U.S. cities. The large values associated
with stormwater runoff reduction ($47.80/tree) and increased real estate value
($144.70/tree) were substantially greater than values obtained in U.S. cities. Unique
aspects of Lisbon's urban morphology and improvement programs are partially
responsible for these differences
Jim,C. Y. and L.L.H.Peng . 2012.. Weather effect on thermal and energy performance of an
extensive tropical green roof. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,
11 (1): 73-85.
This study investigated the weather effect on thermal performance of a retrofitted extensive
green roof on a railway station in humid-subtropical Hong Kong. Absolute and relative
(reduction magnitude) ambient and surface temperatures recorded for two years were
compared amongst antecedent bare roof, green roof, and control bare roof. The impacts of solar
radiation, relative humidity, soil moisture and wind speed were explored. The holistic green-roof
effect reduced daily maximum tile surface temperature by 5.2°C and air temperature at 10cm
height by 0.7°C, with no significant effect at 160cm. Green-roof passive cooling was enhanced
by high solar radiation and low relative humidity typical of sunny summer days. High soil
moisture supplemented by irrigation lowered air and vegetation surface temperature, and
dampened diurnal temperature fluctuations. High wind speed increased evapotranspiration
cooling of green roof, but concurrently cooled bare roof. Heat flux through green roof was also
weather-dependent, with less heat gain and more heat loss on sunny days, but notable decline
in both attributes on cloudy days. On rainy days, green roof assumed the energy conservation
role with slight increase instead of reduction in cooling load. Daily cooling load was 0.9kWhm -2
and 0.57kWhm -2, respectively for sunny and cloudy summer days, with negligible effect on
rainy days. The 484m 2 green roof brought potential air-conditioning energy saving of 2.80×10
4kWh each summer, equivalent to electricity tariff saving of HK$2.56×10 4 and upstream
avoidance of CO 2 emission of 27.02t at the power plant. The long-term environmental and
energy benefits could justify the cost of green roof installation on public buildings.
Joye, Y., K.Willems, M.Brengman and K.L. Wolf. 2010. The effects of urban retail greenery on
consumer experience: Reviewing the evidence from a restorative perspective. Urban Forestry
and Urban Greening, 9 (1): 57-64.
Over the last three decades solid empirical evidence for the positive influence of greenery on
human psychological and cognitive functioning has been steadily accruing. Based on this
evidence, researchers and practitioners increasingly realize the importance of urban greening as
a strategic activity to promote human wellbeing. Although commercial and retail activities
constitute a significant and influential component of urban contexts, a concern is that the
stakeholders involved (e.g. merchants) can sometimes be reluctant to integrate vegetation in
commercial districts. This can be an important stumbling block for the process of urban
greening. In this paper we introduce the concept of Biophilic Store Design (BSD) as the retail
design strategy to consciously tap the beneficial effects of vegetation. The central aim of this
paper is to demonstrate that the reluctance of certain retail stakeholders to integrate greening
practices like BSD is unjustified. Two lines of evidence in support of this claim will be discussed.
On the one hand, we sketch a conceptual framework which supports the view that BSD can have
restorative effects for those implied in store environments. On the other hand, we review Wolf's
multi-study research program on the effects of urban greening on consumer behavior, attitudes,
and perceptions. These two lines of evidence show that commercial activities and urban
greening are not to be considered as antagonistic but as mutually reinforcing practices.
Cavanagh, J.A.E., P.Zawar-Reza, J.G. Wilson. 2009. Spatial attenuation of ambient particulate
matter air pollution within an urbanised native forest patch. Urban Forestry and Urban
Greening, 8 (1): 21-30.
Of interest to researchers and urban planners is the effect of urban forests on
concentrations of ambient air pollution. Although estimates of the attenuation effect
of urban vegetation on levels of air pollution have been put forward, there have been
few monitored data on small-scale changes within forests, especially in urban forest
patches. This study explores the spatial attenuation of particulate matter air pollution
less than 10 μ in diameter (PM 10) within the confines of an evergreen broadleaved
urban forest patch in Christchurch, New Zealand, a city with high levels of PM 10
winter air pollution. The monitoring network consisted of eight monitoring sites at
various distances from the edge of the canopy and was operated on 13 winter nights
when conditions were conducive for high pollution events. A negative gradient of
particulate concentration was found, moving from higher mean PM10 concentrations
outside the forest (mean=31.5 μg m -3) to lower concentrations deep within the forest
(mean=22.4 μg m -3). A mixed-effects model applied to monitor meteorological,
spatial and pollution data indicated temperature and an interaction between wind
speed and temperature were also significant (P≤0.05) predictors of particulate
concentration. These results provide evidence of the potential role that urban forest
patches may play in mitigating particulate matter air pollution and should be
considered in plans for improving urban air quality.
. Zhao, M., F.J.Escobedo and C.L.Staudhammer. 2010. Spatial patterns of a subtropical, coastal
urban forest: Implications for land tenure, hurricanes, and invasives.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9 (3): 205-214.
Spatial patterns of tree structure and composition were studied to assess the effects of land
tenure, management regimes, and the environment on a coastal, subtropical urban forest. A
total of 229 plots in remnant natural areas, private residential, public non-residential, and
private non-residential land tenures were analyzed in a 1273km 2 study area encompassing the
urbanized portion of Miami-Dade County, USA. Statistical mixed models of structure,
composition, location, and land tenure data were used to analyze spatial patterns across the
study area. A total of 1200 trees were measured of which 593 trees (49%) were located in
residential areas, 67 (6%) in public non-residential areas, 135 trees (11%) in private nonresidential areas, and 405 (34%) in remnant, natural areas. A total of 107 different tree species
belonging to 90 genera were sampled. Basal area in residential land tenures increased towards
the coast while private residential land tenures and natural areas had higher species diversity
than non-residential areas. Tree height, crown light exposure, and crown area might indicate the
effects of past hurricane impacts on urban forest structure. Land tenure, soil types, and urban
morphology influenced composition and structure. Broadleaf evergreen trees are the most
common growth form, followed by broadleaf deciduous, palms, and conifers. Exotic tree species
originated mainly from Asia and 15% of all trees measured were considered exotic-highly
invasive species. We discuss the use of these results as an ecological basis for management and
resilience towards hurricane damage and identifying occurrence of invasive, exotic trees.
Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,