The Roman Empire
Objectives
• Know the demographic problems facing the republic
and how this contributed to instability and the eventual
rise of Julius Caesar.
• Know Julius Caesar’s path to power.
• The First Triumvirate, who was in it, and the parts
they played.
• Why he was assassinated.
• Know how Julius’s death led to formation of the Second
Triumvirate and the eventual rise of Caesar Augustus
(Octavian).
• Who was in the Second Triumvirate and the parts
they played.
• What happens to Mark Antony and why he loses
public support.
• What the pivotal battle is at which Octavian wins
over Antony.
• How Octavian/Augustus takes power and how his
approach was different from Julius’s.
• What the Pax Romana is.
• Why it was called the Pax Romana.
• What factors led to it.
• Who the good and bad Roman emperors were.
• Don’t need to know details about them.
• Main points about the life and culture of the Romans,
e.g. women, children, slaves, families, games, etc.
Following the Punic Wars, Rome was facing a class and
demographic problem.
• All those soldiers who served in the army were typically
small-time farmers. When they went to war, their
farms were “acquired” by wealthy landowners and the
veterans came back to nothing.
• If not farmed, the land lies fallow. Fallow land
produces no crops and no crops produce no money.
Thus, they’d fall into debt to creditors.
• The farms get incorporated into latifundia – big
plantations.
• In addition, Rome was flooded with slaves.
• Remember those 50,000 Carthaginians sold into
slavery? Yeah, those folks and many others the
Romans captured in foreign wars.
• The problem is that the slaves could do a lot of the
more mundane activities.
• Between the landlessness and the slaves, many men
found themselves broke and unemployed. So they did
what people often do in such situations – they head to
the big city.
• Many went to Rome, but generally all were rather
unhappy with how things were turning out.
• The expanding empire also meant more land and
money, which invariably were grabbed up by already
wealthy patrician families. This only exacerbated class
conflict.
The time is ripe for somebody to step onto the stage.
• Or two somebodies. Enter the Gracchus brothers,
Tiberius and Gaius.
• Tiberius, as a tribune, tried implementing land reforms
by redistributing state-owned land (that was being
used by patricians) to the poor.
• When the Senate balked, Tiberius used the Plebian
Assembly to do an end run around it. He did this
several times.
• Senators, worried about a Tyrant Tiberius (and,
more importantly, worried about their land and
money), kill him and 300 followers in the Forum in a
case of mob violence.
• 10 years later, Gaius Gracchus tries following up on the
reforms.
• He also gets killed by a mob, along with 3,000
followers.
Civil war breaks out between Marius and Sulla
• The details aren’t important, but Marius briefly wins.
Unfortunately, he soon dies of old age and Sulla comes
back and takes control.
• At this time, soldiers started showing great loyalty to
their generals.
• Marius instituted military reforms that allowed even
the very poor to enter the army. They became
employed professional troops with the hope of
plunder
• If the soldiers wanted any land, they had to hope
their general could get it for them and give it to
them.
Sulla
Marius
The stage is set for Julius Caesar
• The rundown:
• Caesar joins with Pompey and Crassus to form the
First Triumvirate.
• Julius wanted Pompey’s influence (he was a
prominent general) and Crassus’s money.
• He uses this alliance to become governor of
southern France (Gaul).
• He proceeded to use his position to conquer all of
Gaul (France), subduing all the tribes and killing
tens of thousands of enemy troops.
• This makes Caesar very popular and he becomes a
threat to Pompey.
Pompey
Crassus
• The Senate, under Pompey’s influence, tries
stripping Caesar of his army.
• Caesar instead invades Italy and takes Rome.
• He hunts down Pompey who is killed by King
Ptolemy of Egypt.
• Caesar is elected consul for life and has all sorts of
honors bestowed upon him.
• Some senators were afraid Caesar was going to
make himself an emperor and take absolute power
for himself. So they plotted to assassinate him.
• He’s killed in the Forum on 3/15/44 BC (the Ides
of March)
While the senators sought to prevent an empire, they
ironically helped it come into being.
• The public, with whom Caesar was enormously popular,
were upset that some rich, aristocratic fancy-pants
senators had killed him.
• With Caesar’s death comes a power vacuum and it
needs to be filled.
The Second Triumvirate is formed.
• A three-person dictatorship, this time established by
law. It was limited to five year terms and lasted two
terms.
• Consisted of Caesar’s great-nephew Octavian (or
Octavius depending on the translation), Caesar’s
cavalry commander Lepidus, and Caesar’s right-hand
man Mark Antony.
Octavian
Lepidus
Marc Antony
Not Marc Antony
• One of the first items of business was getting rid of
Julius Caesar’s enemies and assassins. They
implement proscription: outlawing people as enemies
of the state.
• Both Cassius and Brutus commit suicide in 42 BC
upon losing a battle and seeing capture eminent
(the captivity would not have been pleasant).
• The great orator Cicero is also on the hit list.
• He forcefully spoke against Caesar and then later
Marc Antony.
• He was decapitated and his head and hands were
displayed on what was essentially the main
podium in the Roman Forum as sign to others.
• Its said Antony’s wife also pulled out his tongue
and stabbed it with pins.
• Not surprisingly, once their joint goals are done, the
three members start scheming against each other,
mainly Antony and Octavian.
• Lepidus, for the most part stood aside, but was cast
out of the Triumvirate when he tried to take
Octavian’s legions.
• Octavian had the benefit of being Julius Caesar’s
sole heir so he got Caesar’s name and money.
Because Julius had been deified not long after his
death, he could also claim he was the son (adopted)
of a god.
• He was only 18 when the Triumvirate formed so
he consistently misunderestimated.
Octavian had taken effective control of the western
empire, while Antony took over the east.
• Antony also shacked up with the Egyptian queen
Cleopatra (Julius’s former lover) despite being married
to Octavian’s sister, Octavia, at the time. He even had
three kids by her.
• Octavian used Antony’s affair to great political effect.
• Antony spent most of his time with Cleopatra in
Alexandria. He was accused of going native (and
less Roman) and of having low morals by leaving his
pregnant wife.
• He even declared that Julius Caesar's illegitimate
son with Cleopatra was Julius’s legitimate heir.
This threatened Octavian’s big ace in the hole.
• Octavian then goes before the Senate and reads
Antony’s will aloud.
• It promised large chunks of Roman land to his
and Cleopatra’s kids and that his body should be
buried in Alexandria, not Rome. In Roman eyes,
no true Roman would do this and Antony lost a
lot of public support.
• Octavian definitely got the will illegally. There’s
also speculation as to whether it was genuine or
a forgery made for propaganda purposes.
• Rome declares war on Cleopatra and Egypt (and
Antony by association).
The war is quickly decided at the naval Battle of Actium
off of western Greece in 31 BC.
• Octavian had trapped Antony’s fleet in a gulf and
Antony needed to break out.
• Antony was using heavy warships that could weigh up
to three tons. He also had a manpower problem
because his camp had been hit by malaria from being
in a swamp. He burned the boats that couldn’t be
staffed.
• One of Antony’s generals also defected to Octavian and
gave him Antony’s battle plans.
• Octavian’s smaller ships stayed out of range and could
outmaneuver Antony’s. When they did engage, it was
more like a land battle.
• Octavian’s forces start getting the better of Antony’s
flank and Cleopatra, seeing this, takes her ships and
runs. Antony, upon seeing Cleopatra running, takes
some of his ships and runs after her.
• The rest of Antony’s abandoned fleet, in disarray, is
destroyed by Octavian’s forces.
• Debate as to whether Antony’s and Cleopatra’s
running off was planned or not. Either way, it was
seen as a defeat and Antony’s armies left him.
• Octavian closed in on Antony who committed suicide.
• Cleopatra is captured and she tries to negotiate with
Octavian. He’s not much in the mood, though, and she
too commits suicide by having an asp smuggled in with
a basket of dates bite her.
• She didn’t care to be paraded through Rome as a
victory trophy.
• Caesarion, Julius’s son, is killed at age 17 on
Octavian’s orders. Two Caesars is one too many.
Octavian is now Rome’s main guy with all of Rome’s
provinces pledging allegiance to him.
• Octavian preserves the republican institutions and is
elected consul.
• The Senate makes him proconsul over the western
empire. Also gives him the titles of Augustus and
princeps (first citizen).
• Also got to wear a laurel crown. What? It was
rather symbolic.
• Senate continues granting him greater powers and
authority. It’s only a collection of various titles and
powers for set periods of time but…
• The point is that Augustus became effectively
emperor. And he didn’t seize power by force or take
on dictator for life. The Senate and the people
voluntarily conferred power on him.
• This kept illusion of republican control and kept
aristocrats from getting bent out of shape.
Augustus didn’t make Julius’s mistakes.
Augustus as emperor begins the Pax Romana from
25 BC – AD 180.
• “Roman Peace.” Rome had become the Mediterranean
and European superpower. It used this power to create
peace and prosperity throughout the region.
• There was no one to seriously challenge it and Rome
could keep people in line or put down rebellions.
• Also protected trade.
• No civil wars.
• There were still wars, mind you, but most of them were
to expand Rome’s boundaries or preserve them. Most
action was on the borders while the interior stayed
safe.
• Agriculture was the most important industry in the
empire, with farming employing 90% of the people.
• During the pax Romana, a uniform currency is
introduced, trade expanded, and roads were built.
• All roads lead to Rome, after all, and they were
impressive.
• The roads were incredibly
straight. And they pulled this
off by using a ridiculously
simple surveying tool called a
groma.
• The groma was used for all sorts of surveying, including
buildings. It’s nearly as effectively accurate as highly precise
modern surveying equipment that’s all fancy with electronics,
lasers, and GPS.
• The groma’s big disadvantage, though, is that it doesn’t do
curves or other odd shapes well. It’s a straight line kinda
instrument.
• Other factors that helped the development of the
empire was incorporating new peoples.
• Everybody was attracted to Rome – it was big,
powerful, wealthy, civilized, sophisticated,
technologically advanced, and had lots of nice stuff.
You want a piece of that.
• Soldiers in the Roman army could become citizens
upon completion of their service.
• Rome also improved the territories and cities.
Romanized them to some extent.
Great Life of Brian quote:
REG:
All right, but apart from the sanitation, the medicine,
education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, a fresh
water system, and public health, what have the Romans
ever done for us?
XERXES:
Brought peace.
REG:
Oh. Peace? Shut up!
• Probably most importantly, Augustus put into place
efficient administration across the empire.
• In any empire, an emperor may rule it, but
bureaucrats run it. Without an effective and
relatively efficient administrative class, no empire
(or any government for that matter) can maintain
itself.
Augustus dies in AD 14. He’s succeeded by Tiberius.
• A empire or monarchial system is simultaneously
strong and weak.
• Its strength is that there’s one person who’s ultimately
in control and has power over everything. This is more
efficient, effective, and timely. This, though, is
dependent on good and wise rulers.
• Its weakness is that one or two bad rulers can ruin
everything the good rulers do and nearly bring down
the empire.
• Its other weakness is the internal power politics and
issues of succession.
• These are all true of all empires and monarchies, not
just the Roman variety.
It’s often said there were five good emperors and three
bad ones.
• Good guys:
• Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus
Aurelius
• Bad guys:
• Caligula, Nero, and Domition
• There were more emperors than this, but these are the
big ones.
• Here’s a list.
Nerva
Hadrian
Trajan
Marcus
Aurelius
Antonius Pius
Here are a few interesting points about some of these
guys. Mainly the bad ones because they were
somewhat insane and are therefore inherently more
interesting.
Caligula
• His real name was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus. He was called Caligula because, as a boy,
his mom would dress him up in a little soldier’s outfit.
The troops nicknamed him Caligula, or Little Boots.
• Indications he may have committed incest with his
sisters.
• Thought about having his horse be appointed consul.
• Tried having himself deified.
• Extremely decadent, blasphemous, and cruel.
• Assassinated by his body guards.
Nero
• Great grandson of Mark Antony and Augustus’s sister
Octavia
• Killed both his mother and aunt (later complained of his
mother’s ghost haunting him).
• May have set fire to the poorer parts of Rome to clear
them out and take over the land.
• Considered himself a great artist and actor and would
act in the amphitheatre.
• This was somewhat scandalous. And nobody was
allowed to leave while he performed.
• Kicked his pregnant wife to death because she nagged
him.
• Senate deposed him and he slit his own throat as the
soldiers were about to capture him.
Commodus
• Played gladiator in the arena. But didn’t play fair.
• Thought he was a new Hercules. Wild animals
would be tethered, though, and opposing gladiators
would have wooden weapons.
• Also executed other prominent gladiators.
• Had drunken orgies with a harem of 300 women and
300 boys.
• Renamed the months after him.
• Renamed Rome itself after him.
• Nearly bankrupted Rome.
• Strangled in his bathtub by his wrestling partner.
Commodus and Screech from Saved by the Bell… connection?
Roman culture• Fathers were the heads of their families and decided
what would happen in them.
• The emperor was the paterfamilias of Rome.
• Roman women had some rights, but could still have a
difficult life.
• Married young and had lots of kids. This was
hazardous.
• Were tasked with their children’s early education
and transmitting the culture.
• Used public baths and participated in some religious
festivals. Could also work and had personal
freedoms.
• Couldn’t drink wine – didn’t want them to get wild.
• Children
• Received early education from their mothers before
getting advanced learning from tutors and such – if
even that.
• Were with the mother until about 7. Then boys
would go to their teachers or work with their
fathers. Girls would stay with the mother and
learn home ec.
• Boys were preferred. They could work more and
gain political power for the family. Some girls were
simply exposed.
• Slaves
• Had no rights. Could be killed at will.
• Were usually foreigners who had been captured in
battle or the progeny of such people.
• Could also be orphans or kids fathers sold off for
extra money.
• A slave was a slave for life unless the master freed
him.
• Or unless he paid his master what his master had
paid for him, but this was very rare since a slave
has a pretty limited income.
• Estimates are that anywhere from 25% to 40% of
the population in Rome were slaves.
• Less (around 10%) in rural areas and maybe
33% in most cities.
• Race or ethnicity didn’t matter about who could be
enslaved. All that mattered was that they weren’t
Romans.
• Some races, though, were more preferred for
some tasks.
• Stocky northern Europeans were valued for
manual labor. Greeks for education.
• Could be treated well or cruelly depending on the
master. Slaves were expensive so there was some
motivation not to be brutal.
• Most gladiators were slaves, but were exceptionally
valuable. Owners didn’t really want them killed.
• Practice changes over time as new influxes of slaves
slows and empire falls apart.
• Were a few large slave revolts.
• Biggest one led by Spartacus in 73-71 BC.
• Had an army of 70,000 escaped slaves.
• When Rome finally conquered him, they
crucified 6,000 of his followers and lined them
up on one of the main roads to Rome.
Entertainment and Bread and Circuses
• Wealth and Social Status made huge differences in how
people lived. RICH VS. POOR
• Much of Rome’s populace was poor and many
unemployed.
• This is a recipe for disaster if they’re not kept
occupied.
• Emperor’s, at state expense, would put on massive
entertainment events.
• Chariot races at the Circus Maximus.
• Gladiator battles at the Colosseum.
• Parades, theatre, etc.
• Everybody also got grain rations.