Environmental Issues
Dear Minoo and environmental team
here's Hamdi's poem (he is 15 years old)
There's a feeling I get
When I am all wet
From the rain that falls down from heaven
That the is near
While the reason is so clear
What will happen, we don't know until then
There's a dream I see
where I am upon a tree
And I am looking down to the Earth
Where there is nothing but fire
Nothing left to admire
And the children cry for help
Dreams of death and tears
Dreams of the worst of all tears
Those are not dreams, those are just night mares
The Earth is dying in our hands
Pollution is reigning all lands
Shrieks are all across their heads, but who cares
Angels crying in the sky
Pain and tears with a sign
As they see the face of the Earth when they roam
Seeing no birds in the day
seeing the roses fading away
This the world of tomorrow
A world of misery and sorrow
But who cares
WE DO...
Students @ Work
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Rationale
Climatic Variation: A picture of the past
World Climatic Zones
• Climatic Zones: In the eve of Ibn Khuldun
An over view of the cultural-cum-seasonal
traditions of the world
Prospects for cultural contacts
Conclusion
References
INTRODUCTION:
This study addresses about the role played by climatic
variation on human life and its effects. It also tells you
whether different cultures and traditions are a part of its
by-product or not. Further, if you will read it will give
you possible prospects for the cultural contact among
different countries of the world. And many such
interesting things which you will enjoy reading. The best
part of this presentation is the contribution of the
teacher
of Social Science Learning Area and the students of
Class VIII – A (40) and the spirit of their teamwork.
RATIONALE
There are different purposes of doing this project of
I*EARN like:
1) To make the children aware of other international
projects going on
in this circle.
2) To let the children know about the cultures of other
countries.
3) It will help students know much about the cultural
education and will increase their awareness about the
customs and traditions of different countries.
4) They can exchange their ideas with other children and
can know their living style.
CLIMATIC VARIATION: A
PICTURE OF THE PAST:
If we peep into the retrospect what we find that climatic
variation has dominantly affected the human activities
with devastating results. For understanding the relations
between the two strands, interesting historical events
have been mentioning here in order to calculate the
costs and benefits of this aspect.
In the mid-1970's, weather - or, more accurately,
climate - suddenly seemed to emerge as a new factor in
the history of mankind. In the wake of summer droughts
in Europe, heavy rains in arid Saudi Arabia, a
disastrously dry winter in the Rocky Mountains, savage
blizzards in New England and the deadly spread of
deserts in Africa. Some writers, openly alarmist, predict
that a new Ice Age is upon us, while others, looking to
sales, darkly blame nuclear explosions or hint at
imaginative conspiracies. Even the more restrained
observers suggest that changes in weather patterns will
have a disturbing impact on modern history.
Actually, weather has always played an important role in
history. Taking the example of the great Mediterranean
Greek civilization of Mycenae - which abruptly fell about
1200 B.C. - Bryson established some guideposts from
relatively verifiable data of that same historical period
but in different parts of the globe: an emigration of
people from Libya to Egypt, a series of horrendous
floods in Hungary an abnormal rising of the Caspian
Sea, and so on. Why did the Mycenaean people leave?
Was it an invasion of Dorians from the north?
A good example of this is the recent desertification of
the Sahel in north central Africa, where overgrazing plus
a variation in climate patterns produced almost six
years of famine conditions
Another example - from both the Bible and the Koran is Joseph, who laid aside seven years' worth of food in
Egyptian granaries in preparation for a coming period of
famine. Joseph implicitly recognized the decreasing
productivity of the soil resulting from a discernible
climatic variation: the slow but inevitable course of
desiccation - similar to that now taking place in Africa.
Climate, together with human demands on the
environment, has already had an immense, if not always
recognized, impact on the history of the Middle East
Herdsmen, for example, have let their goats and sheep
overgraze Middle East pasture lands for millennia, and
both armies and priesthoods have stripped such regions
as ancient Anatolia and Syria of their forests. Combined
with climatic changes over the same periods, such
practices transformed many areas - where civilizations
once flourished - into useless deserts.
Where exceptional individuals learned or foresaw
impending changes in climate and were able to take
action, the results were quite different Noah, for
example, was alerted to the Flood - possibly a result of
storms in the region of Iraq with the addition of melting
snow from the Caucasus Mountains - and miraculously
understood what his neighbors obviously did not: that
such climatic variations can change men's lives - and in
a remarkably short time.
On August 20 in AD. 636, for example, a perverse change in the weather
helped determine the outcome of a battle in Syria that, in turn, became a
watershed in the history of the Middle East.
The battle, which took place on the Yarmuk River near the
Golan Heights in Southern Syria, pitted the armies of the
Byzantine emperor Heraclius against thousands of Muslim
Arabs, and the outcome - a resounding Arab victory reshaped the known world. For Arab victory that day
erased forever the power of Byzantium in Syria, and
opened the way for the subsequent conquest of Egypt and
all of North Africa by the armies of Islam. Eventually the
victory at Yarmuk also opened the eastern Mediterranean
to the Umayyad dynasty, led to the conquest of Spain and,
still later, to three sieges of the greatest Christian city:
Constantinople. The memory of the glorious day at Yarmuk
would even echo in the 20th-century Arab struggle against
colonialism. A key factor in the battle of the Yarmuk River
was a change in the weather.
Such perversity of weather is not uncommon in the
history of the Middle East. In 717 the Umayyad dynasty,
bent on conquering Constantinople, was turned back as
much by the fickleness of miserable winter weather as
by the Byzantines' secret weapon - "Greek fire" and the
great rampart system surrounding the city. In 1098
unseasonable cold nearly thwarted the first European
Crusaders' siege of Antioch, and in 1529 one Ottoman
sultan Suleiman the Magnificent - turned back from
Vienna after unseasonable rainstorms in the Danube
Valley bogged his cannon down in the mud. Half a
century later the Christian Holy League defeated the
Ottomans in a naval battle at Lepanto, but could not
follow up their advantage because of a severe storm on
the morrow of the victory.
Commanders of those periods, of course, had no weather
satellites to help them time their campaigns, but they
were, nevertheless, acutely aware that weather could
have catastrophic effects on their plans and they did
what they could. From earliest times, they attempted to
placate the gods, sought the opinions of soothsayers and
astrologists, and called upon various holy men to
ascertain weather conditions. But such activities provided
only psychological solace, not practical help.
Today, modem science is gradually changing this state of
affairs. The scientific revolution has not only provided a
rational understanding of curious and perverse weather
changes but, by averaging out such changes, discerned
predictable patterns of climate. Gathering together
barometric, temperature and rainfall data in many parts
of the world over many decades, meteorologists have
determined that climate - the long-term accumulation of
weather changes - occurs in definable patterns. If
carefully analyzed, these patterns may foretell what the
inhabitants of a certain region can generally expect over
a period of days and even months. Such data can also
give insights into the climatological probabilities for the
future - perhaps even years ahead.
Existing in any case on a narrow margin of economic
subsistence, nomads normally migrate from the drier regions
to the more verdant and when extraordinary variations in
climate occur, mass movement toward more fertile regions is
inevitable - with results that are politically devastating. The
Persian-Turanian enmity, lasting for centuries and dearly
articulated in the 10th-century epic Shah-name (The Book of
Kings), may be an example of this; it seems to have had its
roots in just such extraordinary pressures by the nomadic
Turanian cultures on the urban Persian civilization. Because
climatic variations apparently dried up their normal grazing
grounds, various Turkish tribes east of the Oxus River pushed
west, crossed the natural boundary of the river, and swarmed
over portions of pre-Islamic Persia's urban culture.
At the other end of the climatic spectrum, excessively
moist years in normally vegetated areas can create
abnormally rich nutrients for mosquitoes, grasshoppers
or rodents and, as a result, lead to deadly plagues. In
the Middle Ages the fertile oasis of Damascus in Syria
had a continuing reputation for being plague-ridden,
probably malarial. And although an abundance of water
is of course vital to agriculture, it can also result in the
spread of liver flukes which carry the disease called
bilharzia, a problem in Egypt and some other Middle
Eastern countries.
The most common misery and the worst suffering attributable
to unexpected climatic variations are those which arise when
climatic change alters vast agricultural regions generally
considered fertile - the so-called "breadbaskets." Every premodern Middle East power had its major source of food: the
Byzantines' was Anatolia and Syria; the 'Abbasids had the
lower Tigris-Euphrates region plus Khurasan and Bukhara;
and the Ottomans possessed Egypt. But there was also an
inherent political danger in such agricultural dependence, and
it eventually materialized. When climatic patterns changed,
the farmers, unable and unwilling to migrate, could be
provoked into rebellion against the established authorities.
Nomads could move on, but for sedentary peasants, flight
from their ancestral homes was simply not an acceptable
alternative.
One example of political upheaval possibly rooted in
climatic variations is the Jelali revolts of the late 16th
century in Ottoman Anatolia. Following a period of
several decades of poor growing seasons and severe
desiccation, the Anatolian peasants rebelled for more
than a dozen years, striking terror into the Ottoman
government and almost severing Anatolia from the
Empire.
WORLD CLIMATIC ZONES
Have you ever wondered why one area of the world is a desert,
another a grassland, and another a rainforest? Why are there
different forests and deserts, and why are there different types
of life in each area? The answer is climate.
Climate is the characteristic condition of the atmosphere near
the earth's surface at a certain place on earth. It is the longterm weather of that area (at least 30 years). This includes the
region's general pattern of weather conditions, seasons and
weather extremes like hurricanes, droughts, or rainy periods.
Two of the most important factors determining an area's
climate are air temperature and precipitation.
World biomes are controlled by climate. The climate of a region
will determine what plants will grow there, and what animals
will inhabit it. All three components, climate, plants and
animals are interwoven to create the fabric of a biome.
SOME FACTS ABOUT CLIMATE
The sun's rays hit the equator at a direct angle between 23 °
N and 23 ° S latitude. Radiation that reaches the atmosphere
here is at its most intense.
In all other cases, the rays arrive at an angle to the surface
and are less intense. The closer a place is to the poles, the
smaller the angle and therefore the less intense the radiation.
Our climate system is based on the location of these hot and
cold air-mass regions and the atmospheric circulation created
by trade winds and westerlies.
Trade winds north of the equator blow from the northeast.
South of the equator, they blow from the southeast. The trade
winds of the two hemispheres meet near the equator, causing
the air to rise. As the rising air cools, clouds and rain develop.
The resulting bands of cloudy and rainy weather near the
equator create tropical conditions.
Westerlies blow from the southwest on the Northern
Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern
Hemisphere. Westerlies steer storms from west to east
across middle latitudes.
Both westerlies and trade winds blow away from the 30
° latitude belt. Over large areas centered at 30 °
latitude, surface winds are light. Air slowly descends to
replace the air that blows away. Any moisture the air
contains evaporates in the intense heat. The tropical
deserts, such as the Sahara of Africa and the Sonoran
of Mexico, exist under these regions.
SEASONS
The Earth rotates about its axis, which is tilted at 23.5
degrees. This tilt and the sun's radiation result in the
Earth's seasons. The sun emits rays that hit the earth's
surface at different angles. These rays transmit the
KÖPPEN CLIMATE
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most
widely used for classifying the world's climates. Most
classification systems used today are based on the one
introduced in 1900 by the Russian-German climatologist
Wladimir Köppen. Köppen divided the Earth's surface
into climatic regions that generally coincided with world
patterns of vegetation and soils.
The Köppen system recognizes five major climate types
based on the annual and monthly averages of
temperature and precipitation. Each type is designated
by a capital letter.
A - Moist Tropical Climates are known for their high
temperatures year round and for their large amount of
year round rain.
B - Dry Climates are characterized by little rain and a
huge daily temperature range. Two subgroups, S semiarid or steppe, and W - arid or desert, are used
with the B climates.
C - In Humid Middle Latitude Climates land/water
differences play a large part. These climates have
warm,dry summers and cool, wet winters.
D - Continental Climates can be found in the interior
regions of large land masses. Total precipitation is not
very high and seasonal temperatures vary widely.
E - Cold Climates describe this climate type perfectly.
These climates are part of areas where permanent ice and
tundra are always present. Only about four months of the
year have above freezing temperatures.
Further subgroups are designated by a second, lower case
letter which distinguish specific seasonal characteristics of
temperature and precipitation.
f - Moist with adequate precipitation in all months and no
dry season. This letter usually accompanies the A, C, and
D climates.
m - Rainforest climate in spite of short, dry season in
monsoon type cycle. This letter only applies to A
climates.
s - There is a dry season in the summer of the
respective hemisphere (high-sun season).
w - There is a dry season in the winter of the respective
hemisphere (low-sun season).
To further denote variations in climate, a third letter was
added to the code.
a - Hot summers where the warmest month is over 22°C
(72°F). These can be found in C and D climates.
b - Warm summer with the warmest month below 22°C
(72°F). These can also be found in C and D climates.
c - Cool, short summers with less than four months over
10°C (50°F) in the C and D climates.
d - Very cold winters with the coldest month below 38°C (-36°F) in the D climate only.
h - Dry-hot with a mean annual temperature over 18°C
(64°F) in B climates only.
k - Dry-cold with a mean annual temperature under
18°C (64°F) in B climates only.
Climates are described by agreed-upon codes or by
descriptive terms that are some what loosely defined but
nevertheless useful. On a global scale, climate can be
spoken of in terms of zones, or belts, that can be traced
between the equator and the pole in each hemisphere. To
understand them, the circulation of the upper atmosphere,
or stratosphere, must be considered, as well as that of the
lower atmosphere, or troposphere, where weather takes
place. Upper atmospheric phenomena were little
understood until the advent of such advanced technology
as rocketry, high-altitude aircraft, and satellites.
Ideally, hot air can be thought of as rising by convection
along the equator and sinking near the poles. Thus, the
equatorial belt tends to be a region of low pressure and
calms, interrupted by thunderstorms
THREE BASIC CLIMATE GROUPS.
Three major climate groups show the dominance of
special combinations of air-mass source regions.
GROUP I
LOW-LATITUDE CLIMATES
These climates are controlled by equatorial a tropical air
masses.
TROPICAL MOIST CLIMATES
(AF) RAINFOREST
Rainfall is heavy in all months. The total annual rainfall is often
more than 250 cm. (100 in.). There are seasonal differences in
monthly rainfall but temperatures of 27°C (80°F) mostly stay the
same. Humidity is between 77 and 88%.
High surface heat and humidity cause cumulus clouds to form
early in the afternoons almost every day.
The climate on eastern sides of continents are influenced by
maritime tropical air masses. These air masses flow out from the
moist western sides of oceanic high-pressure cells, and bring lots
of summer rainfall. The summers are warm and very humid. It
also rains a lot in the winter
Average temperature: 18 °C (°F)
Annual Precipitation: 262 cm. (103 in.)
Latitude Range: 10° S to 25 ° N
Global Position: Amazon Basin; Congo Basin of equatorial Africa;
East Indies, from Sumatra to New Guinea.
WET-DRY TROPICAL CLIMATES
(AW) SAVANNA
A seasonal change occurs between wet tropical air
masses and dry tropical air masses. As a result, there is
a very wet season and a very dry season. Trade winds
dominate during the dry season. It gets a little cooler
during this dry season but will become very hot just
before the wet season.
Temperature Range: 16 °C
Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.). All months less
than 0.25 cm. (0.1 in.)
Latitude Range: 15 ° to 25 ° N and S
Global Range: India, Indochina, West Africa, southern
Africa, South America and the north coast of Australia
DRY TROPICAL CLIMATE (BW)
DESERT BIOME
These desert climates are found in low-latitude deserts
approximately between 18° to 28° in both hemispheres. these
latitude belts are centered on the tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn, which lie just north and south of the equator. They
coincide with the edge of the equatorial subtropical high pressure
belt and trade winds. Winds are light, which allows for the
evaporation of moisture in the intense heat. They generally flow
downward so the area is seldom penetrated by air masses that
produce rain. This makes for a very dry heat. The dry arid desert
is a true desert climate, and covers 12 % of the Earth's land
surface.
Temperature Range: 16° C
Annual Precipitation: 0.25 cm (0.1 in). All months less than 0.25 cm
(0.1 in).
Latitude Range: 15° - 25° N and S.
Global Range: southwestern United States and northern Mexico;
Argentina; north Africa; south Africa; central part of Australia.
GROUP II
MID-LATITUDE CLIMATES
Climates in this zone are affected by two different airmasses. The tropical air-masses are moving towards the
poles and the polar air-masses are moving towards the
equator. These two air masses are in constant conflict.
Either air mass may dominate the area, but neither has
exclusive control.
Dry Midlatitude Climates (BS) steppe
Characterized by grasslands, this is a semiarid climate.
It can be found between the desert climate (BW) and
more humid climates of the A, C, and D groups. If it
received less rain, the steppe would be classified as an
arid desert. With more rain, it would be classified as a
tallgrass prairie.
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE (CS)
CHAPARRAL BIOME
This is a wet-winter, dry-summer climate. Extremely dry
summers are caused by the sinking air of the
subtropical highs and may last for up to five months.
Plants have adapted to the extreme difference in rainfall
and temperature between winter and summer seasons.
Sclerophyll plants range in formations from forests, to
woodland, and scrub. Eucalyptus forests cover most of
the chaparral biome in Australia.
Fires occur frequently in Mediterranean climate zones.
Temperature Range: 7 °C (12 °F)
Annual Precipitation: 42 cm (17 in).
Latitude Range: 30° - 50° N and S
Global Position: central and southern California; coastal
zones bordering the Mediterranean Sea; coastal Western
Australia and South Australia; Chilean coast; Cape Town
region of South Africa.
Dry Midlatitude Climates (Bs) grasslands biom
These dry climates are limited to the interiors of North
America and Eurasia.
Ocean air masses are blocked by mountain ranges to the
west and south. This allows polar air masses to dominate
in winter months. In the summer, a local continental air
mass is dominant. A small amount of rain falls during
this season. Annual temperatures range widely.
Summers are warm to hot, but winters are cold.
Temperature Range: 31 °C (56°F).
Annual Precipitation: 81 cm. (32 in.).
Latitude Range: 30° - 55° N and S
Global Position: western North America (Great Basin,
Columbia Plateau, Great Plains); Eurasian interior.
Moist Continental Climate (Cf) Deciduous Forest biom
This climate is in the polar front zone - the battleground of
polar and tropical air masses. Seasonal changes between
summer and winter are very large. Daily temperatures also
change often. Abundant precipitation falls throughout the
year. It is increased in the summer season by invading
tropical air masses. Cold winters are caused by polar and
arctic masses moving south.
Temperature Range: 31 °C (56 ° F)
Average Annual Precipitation: 81 cm (32 in).
Latitude Range: 30° - 55° N and S (Europe: 45° - 60° N).
Global Position: eastern parts of the United States and
southern Canada; northern China; Korea; Japan; central
and eastern Europe.
GROUP III
HIGH-LATITUDE CLIMATES
Polar and arctic air masses dominate these regions.
Canada and Siberia are two air-mass sources which fall
into this group. A southern hemisphere counterpart to
these continental centers does not exist. Air masses of
arctic origin meet polar continental air masses along the
60th and 70th parallels.
BOREAL FOREST CLIMATE
(DFC) TAIGA BIOM
This is a continental climate with long, very cold winters, and
short, cool summers. This climate is found in the polar air mass
region. Very cold air masses from the arctic often
move in. The temperature range is larger than any other climate.
Precipitation increases during summer months, although annual
precipitation is still small. Much of the boreal forest climate is
considered humid. However, large areas in western Canada and
Siberia receive very little precipitation and fall into the subhumid
or semiarid climate type.
Temperature Range: 41 °C (74 °F), lows; -25 °C (-14 °F), highs; 16 °C (60
°F).
Average Annual Precipitation: 31 cm (12 in).
Latitude Range: 50° - 70° N and S.
Global Position: central and western Alaska; Canada, from the Yukon
Territory to Labrador; Eurasia, from northern Europe across all of Siberia to
the Pacific Ocean.
TUNDRA CLIMATE (E) TUNDRA
BIOME
The tundra climate is found along arctic coastal areas.
Polar and arctic air masses dominate the tundra climate.
The winter season is long and severe. A short, mild
season exists, but not a true summer season.
Moderating ocean winds keep the temperatures from
being as severe as interior regions.
Temperature Range: -22 °C to 6 °C (-10 °F to 41 °F).
Average Annual Precipitation: 20 cm (8 in).
Latitude Range: 60° - 75° N.
Global Position: arctic zone of North America; Hudson
Bay region; Greenland coast; northern Siberia bordering
the Arctic Ocean.
HIGHLAND CLIMATE (H)
ALPINE BIOME
Highland climates are cool to cold, found in mountains
and high plateaus. Climates change rapidly on
mountains, becoming colder the higher the altitude gets.
The climate of a highland area is closely related to the
climate of the surrounding biome. The highlands have
the same seasons and wet and dry periods as the biome
they are in
Average Annual Precipitation: 23 cm (9 in.)
Latitude Range: found all over the world
Global Position: Rocky Mountain Range in North
America, the Andean mountain range in South America,
the Alps in Europe, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa, the
Himalayans in Tibet, Mt. Fuji in Japan.
CLIMATIC ZONES:
IN THE EVE OF IBN KHULDUN:
The natural environment of man effects on his personal
and social habits. Ibn khaldun was one of the important
political thinkers who propounded the theory about
geographical and atmospheric background and human
activities.
He meticulously divides the habitable earth, known to him, into
seven zones, and includes in them not merely Africa, the Arab
regions and the region of southern and eastern Asia as far as
northern China, but also Spain, France, England and practically
the whole of Europe. It is on such world-wide data that he bases
his conclusions. He begins with the axiom that north and south
(the latter, meaning the equatorial regions) represent
opposite extremes of cold and heat, while the regions in the
center of the two are moderate in temperature giving rise to arts,
crafts and sciences, distinguished by fine buildings, foodstuffs and
fruits and even the animals living in these regions are of wellproportioned bodily character. Human beings are also well
proportioned, moderately fair in color and of good qualities. They
use the very best of tools and implements, and their coins are
made up of the two leading minerals, gold and silver.
On the other hand, in regions away from the moderate
zones either south or north, the conditions are different.
Those living in south, away from the temperate zone,
have their buildings made up of clay and reed. Ibn
khuldun says that the conditions of those living right in
the north, is also of a low standard, except those who
have adopted Christianity or Islam as their way of life.
He says that there are exceptions to this rule especially
in the regions which are situated close to the sea, for
the resultant humidity moderates the influence of the
regional heat. Such for instance, are the Yemen, South
Arabia, Hijaz, Yamama etc.
He is quite candid that the color of the skin is not due to
the race being descended from white or a colored
progenitor like Ham or Japheth, but to the composition
of their caused by great which is again the result of the
sun being constantly at the zenith near the equator.
Similarly the northern races have blue eyes, freckled
skin and blonde hair owing to the composition of the air.
It is therefore natural that the inhabitants of the central
zones have the capacity of living an organized existence
needing not merely political groupings called states but
also political leadership culminating in royal authority.
They also respond to religious teachings as well as
natural sciences. Among these Ibn khaldun counts
Greek, Romans, Persians, Jews, Chinese and Indians.
It hardly needs any proof that the quality and quantity
of food is directly effected by the fertility of the soil as
well as the amount of space which can be set aside for
cultivation. There are those who live on the fringe of
deserts, or weather there is not enough space for
cultivation, and they have to work harder and generally
live meat and milk products.
They are therefore physically healthier and mentally
more alert, while those who have plentiful of grain and
other varieties of food are generally culler and prone to
great comfort. For the consumption of excessive
quantities of food generate superfluous matter causing
the dullness of mental capacities, and this naturally
reacts on the social life of the people. Ibn khuldun’s
theories regarding the effect of climate on human
societies is interspersed with illustration from the animal
world as well as the history of various human races.
It should be clear that this is not hard and fast rule to
be believed on it but the possibilities can be here. We
live are living in the world of science and technology
and those countries working hard and with consistency
are reaping the benefits of materialistic and intellectual
development.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE
CULTURAL-CUM-SEASONAL
TRADITIONS OF THE WORLD:
This part of the project is related with the culture and
traditions of those countries having uniqe and
interesting aspects in this regard.
The study of the traditional spiritual culture of the
Romanian people starts from the study of beliefs,
customs and ancient magic practices that have been
preserved, along with Christian cult practices, to this
present day. Under the hard conditions of our historical
existence this has been an important moral support.
Since times immemorial ancient beliefs and customs
have been transmitted and they have existed in close
connection to the daily working activities and the wish
for fulfillment of the Romanian people.
Within the area stretching between the Carpathians, the
Danube and the Pontus Euxinus the memory of such
customs goes back a long time. The main symbols of
these traditions have been the sun, the earth, the water
and the air, primary sacred elements whose importance
has lasted to the present day. Our folklore has traditions
dating back from the times of the Roman Dacians.
These beliefs make the originary fund of the Romanian
spiritual culture. The customs are evryday practices,
with traditional individual and collective rules , through
which fertility and wealth , human and animal health
are invoked and natural and supernatural evils are kept
away.
A great number of these practices are reminiscences of
ancient agrarian rites off fertility and passage.In the
creations and manifestations of the traditional folk
culture the profane co-exists in close relation with the
sacred. In his book 'from Zalmoxis to Genghis –Kan',
Mircea Eliade says:' All the religious conceptions of the
Roman Dacians are at least contemporary with those we
decipher in the folk traditions.' A basic manifestation of
these customs is the traditional tryptic : charms, magic,
incantations.
In incantations we find the desire to cure the sick through the
traditional medical magic. Al. Rosetti discovered that some
incantations are on a similar pattern with some ancient Latin
ones; 'A comparison between the constituents of the
Romanian magic incantations and those existing in the Roman
empire proves an undeniable parallelism between the two'.In
fact the very word descantec has a Latin etymology, coming
from th e word discantare. The incantations were
accompanied by some ( medicine, concoctions, plant
mixtures), whose curing properties were derived from the the
belief accordind to which the water, together with the earth,
the air and the fire, is one of the primordial elements of
nature. Another important argument is the fact that in the
Carpathian-Danubian-Pontic space even Plato registered, the
importance of the exorcism in "Carmide".
Enchantments were magic practices used in the past, in which
there were expressed, also through exorcism, wishes for
fulfilment in social or individual life, for preventing or banishing
the evil from enemies or witches. As appendage in practising
them, there were used metal objects or made from iron and
silver, and also spontaneous or cultivated plants: sweet basil,
chicory. The spells were considered "evil" practices, in which, for
fulfilling wishes and banishing pains, you resorted to witches, who
conjured evil spirits. Many ancient traditions are today connected
with the settlement. For the settlement and the dwellings we
have prevalent Latin-Roman base terms: "casa"( casa (house)
"fenestra"(fereastra (window) "pariet"(perete (wall)
"mensa"(masa (table) "coperio"(acoperis (roof)
"scala"(scara (stair) "scandula"(scandura (piece of wood)
The three territorial limits with magic load were the household,
the field's gate and the village border.
Building the house posed a lot of problems beginning
with choosing the place, the material used and
especially laying the foundation, which supposed
sacrificing a life, like in "mesterul manole", ritual with a
great spread (m. Eliade). Also finishing the
constructions meant some traditional habits: adorning
the roof with green branches, putting in corners plants
to banish the supernatural evil.
The dacian-roman inheritances are felt especially in the customs
directly in contact with the cycle of life (birth, marriage and
death), the ones connected to death being prevalent. During the
formation and christianizing of the romanian people, the ritual of
incineration from the traditional dacian-roman fund was
abandoned, by the generalization of the ritual of inhumation
completed by christian cultural practices. Some prechristian
practices survived, being adopted by dacian-roman population in
the process of leavening the folk romanian culture. So, at the
thracians, when a child was born one would cry, and when
someone died one would joke and have fun, celebrating in this
way getting rid of the lives' burdens. Those two rituals are
certified by the archeological discoveries not only during the time
of the roman occupation from dacia traiana, but also during the
migrations. The games of deathwatch are an eloquent example
of this circulation.
Especially the games of deathwatch from vrancea
conjures up the ancient ritual of incineration of the
dead, by the purifying and protective power of a
burning fire at the funeral, around which people that
wore {antropomorfe} and {zoomorfe} masks, named
"unchiesi" (uncles), gamboled. Another game,
"chiperul" was also danced around the fire. The
dancers, arranged in indian file, were thrown in fire,
but, first of all, the dead was taken through fire as well.
"cantecul bradului" ("the song of the pine tree") and
"cantecul zorilor" ("the song of dawn") are connected to
the burial traditions. "the song of dawn" doesn't have a
correspondent in the folklore of other people.
Through this song, the dawns are prayed not to hurry so that
they could finish the preparations, for the long journey the
man had to cover to the other world. "the song of the pine
tree" is part of the ceremonial of the {tineri necasatoriti}
single, the pine tree symbolizing the youth of the one who
died and as well the fact that the dead will get married on the
other world. Some researchers maintain their belief that the
pine tree replaced the mediterranean cypress, which the
romans used to put in front of their house and at the head of
the dead, announcing death. Also, they used to sprinkle the
tombs with water (ceremonial named at greeks hydrophoria).
This custom is certified at the geto-dacs by what was found in
their tombs: some broken ritual vases, destined to "soothe"
the thirst of the dead.
The gets were the ones who cultivated some kind of
aquatic pantheism, attributing the water miraculous
powers. For them the principal of life, that impels
{materia}, identifies with the water. Humans returned
to their primary element, the water, in order to achieve
a new life. Another reason for the proverbial thirst we
have mentioned previously is that the faith has
preserved during the roman conquest. The principal
holidays from our time have been established
depending on older traditions, in connection with the
year's cycle.
So, the winter holidays marked the beginning of the
year, the spring holidays the beginning of the cycle of
vegetation, the summer holidays were meant to protect
the crop from the nature's forces and with the occasion
of the final holidays, the autumn ones, the first fruits
were offered as an offering for the dead. The perrenial
character of these holidays is to be notuced. Their
functions were essential: they kept up the relationship
with the sacred, reproduce the community group and
harmonise society with the universe.
There is a strong traditional heritage related to the first
celebration of the year. With some primitive archaic
peoples the beginning of the year was celebrated at the
spring equinox, when the agricultural labours started.
For the Romans ,during Romulus, when the primitive
agrarian calendar was in function, having a 10-month
year division, the beginning of the year was the 1st of
March( the Ides of March). Only under Numa pompilius
did this date change to the Ides of January.
The holiday of the new year was as well the holiday of Ianus.
From here derives the agrarian character and the name of the first
month – "ianuarie" (january). Ianus, the god with two faces,
personified the past time and the future time, therefore the
beginning. That is why the day of Ianus's auspices brought to the
romans a feeling of a sacred excitement, of rebirth of time and
life. Some time later, due to the julian calendar, introduced by
caesar in 46 b. Hr., The holiday was set for good on the first of
january, being spread in the whole roman world, including dacia.
With the occasion of this holiday the house was adorned with
green branches (of laurel, in the mediterranean spaces, of pine in
our parts), the children, the relatives, the municipal magistrates,
the counsels and the emperor would receive gifts ("strenae") and
well whishes ("oratio", "vota"). These gifts had the magical role of
assuring in the mew year the fulfilling of all hopes for the ones
who received them.
The existence of these traditions on the dacian territory
is proved by several gifts (equestrian figurines made of
terracotta equipped with wheels – sigilla; piggy for
money, bronze rings) found at potaissa, gilau, cristesti,
sucidava etc. Even our well wish "iti doresc un an nou
fericit" (i wish you a happy new year) derives from latin:
"annum novum faustum felicem tibi (mihi)".
The roman christianity has tried to cancel the memory of
the customs connected to the heathen gods, and to
oppose them a adequate holiday, establishing in this
way christmas exactly when "saturnalia", "dies natalia
solis invicti" and "calendele lui ianuarie" were. The
survivals in the roman cultural fund are more obvious in
the zones inside the carpathians than in the ones
outside the carpathians due to the creations and
manifestations of daco-roman tradition.
The more obvious ones are the christmas carols and the
new year's wishes. Another holiday that dates from the
roman time is the "cosmadionul" – the cosma and
damian saints, celebrated on the first of july, these two
saints being the ones who made, when they were not
christians, the poison for saint gheorghe; it's a sin to
work on their day. As well in this cycle of ancient
holidays you will find "rusaliile" – during it two other
christian holidays take simultaneously place: "pogorarea
duhului sfant" and "sfanta treime" - the holy trinity, and
also a complex of rituals dedicated to fairies and an
important episode from the cult of dead ("mosii de
rusalii"); this holiday is seen at the greeks as well, being
called "ingenuncherea" (the kneeling).
The old agrarian rituals left their marks on many folk
traditions. So are the magical rituals for invoking the
rains, for the fecundation of the cows, for the fertility of
the fields: "sangeorzul", "plugarul", "dragaica". The
origin of some folk dances like "hora" and "calusarii"
must be found in the same old substratum. In these
dances persist the memory of some magical medicine
rituals, some initiating rituals and of an ancient cult of
the sun, as well as some mythical symbols of nature. In
the traco-dacian substratum {consta) the originality and
personality of the romanian people, while the roman
{sorginte} has invested us with the universal vocation of
the romans.
Regarding winter activities, Lebanon is one of the few winter
sports centers in the Middle East and certainly the most
extensive. The season begins in December and continues until
April in a winter landscape surprising in its variety and beauty.
The largest resorts have hotels, chalets and other facilities,
including good ski lifts. There are six winter resorts: The Cedars
(2,300 meters), Faraya/Ouyoun es Siman (1,890 meters),
Laklouk (1,740 meters), Faqra (1,750 meters), Qanat Bakiche
(1,900 meters) and Zaarour (1,900 meters). Moreover, winter in
Lebanon is the best time to visit the coastal cities of historyTripoli, Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre- or even the snow bound Roman
temples of the mountains. Not only does a winter sky add drama
to old stones, but these sites can also be pretty hot on a summer
day, and the mild winter temperature can make a sightseeing
tour through ruins more enjoyable. As for familial winter
activities, most of them-especially in the mountains- are centered
in one room dominated by a huge chimney or stove
This room becomes the heart of all domestic
arrangements in winter. The lady of the house usually
sits on a thick carpet near the chimney/stove and
cooks. Meals are served in this room, too. At night,
mattresses are spread around the chimney/stove and
all the family and some neighbors gather with a kettle
of tea or coffee beside them.
Concerning summar activities, Lebanon's long varied
coastline and its Mediterranean climate make it an ideal
place for water sports. Numerous resort complexes,
beaches and swimming clubs have aquatic amusements
and sports on offer, including water skiing, surfing,
underwater fishing, sailing, scuba diving and snorkeling.
Furthermore, the Lebanese fish, go on picnics to nearby
picturesque places such as local rivers, public gardens…
, or walk with friends along the seaside “corniche”,
dodging sea spray and wondering at the clarity of
mountains. Often on these walks, people run across an
enterprising vendor selling roasted chestnuts from a
pushcart, or sometimes it is a cart seller offering kidney
beans spiced with cumin.
CONSTRUCTIONS AND
PATTERNS OF HOUSES:
The local climate affects the actual environmental conditions of
the houses. In a cold climate, or in the winter of temperate
climate, passive solar heating, good insulation and careful control
of air infiltration would reduce the heating requirements. In a
hot-dry climate the massive building, evaporative cooling and
good shading may succeed in ensuring comfort. In warm-humid
climate as in coastal cities in Lebanon, the designer should
ensure that the indoor temperature does not become higher than
the outdoor. Adequate ventilation may ensure this by removing
any excess heat input, but this is not enough. Undue increase of
ceiling temperature may be prevented by:
• using a reflective roof surface
• ensuring adequate ventilation of the attic space
• using reflective surfaces both for the underside of the roof and
for the top of the ceiling
• using some resistive insulation for or on the ceiling
NAME AND STYLE OF GARBS
DURING THE DIFFERENT
SEASONS:
In winter, people wear woolen long sleeved shirts,
pullover, coats, or jackets. They cover their heads with
woolen or water resistible caps and their hands with
gloves. They also wear woolen socks and high- heeled
boots which prevent their legs from water.
In summer, they wear light and bright cotton shirts,
blouses, socks and underwear to prevent sweating
because of the high degree of humidity in summer
season.
SPECIAL FOOD:
Food seems particularly significant during the Lebanese
winter. In late summer, people traditionally store up on
provisions for the cold days ahead. Families who live in
villages and modern apartments in cities prepare their
winter supply of burghul (cracked wheat), lentils, chick
peas, dried beans, oil and olives. At autumn, citydwellers return to their native villages to pick olives and
to secure their all-important provisions of olive oil. In
rural areas, qawarma(fatty meat) is boiled with salt and
preserved in jars.
Firewood is gathered, and jam is made from quinces and
apples. Figs, which have been drying in the open air, are
combined with sugar, pine nuts, sesame seeds and
mastic to make delicious jam. Another traditional winter
food, kishk (a combination of crushed wheat and yogurt
dried in the sun) is prepared.
During the summer season, light dishes are favored to
keep the body fresh. People prefer various types of
mezza such as tabbouly, fattouch, baba ghannouj,
mtabbal, pickles, kebbe…., and grilled meat or fish. As
for desserts, fresh local juice and fruit such as
watermelon, grapes, lemon, peach, cherries, blueberries,
strawberries, figs….in addition to several ice cream
flavors are offered.
NEW YORK CITY’S
CLIMATE DESCRIPTION:
Its latitude, and its proximity to the Gulf Stream that
moves northward along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean
determines the climate of the city and the surrounding
area (states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut):
about 43 degrees north. Winters are not as cold as in the
inland sites at the same latitude. At the same time,
summers are cooler than those of the center of the
country are.
The city has four seasons. Its temperatures range from
as low as -15 degrees Celsius in the winter to around 35
in the summer, humidity and winds are factor that make
the temperatures feel very different. Because of these
conditions, New Yorkers live in houses or apartment
buildings equipped to protect them from these extreme
conditions.
Houses and apartments are built of hard material, usually
concrete, brick, and even rocks. Natural illumination is very
scarce in our houses. Buildings are so close to each other that
they prevent solar radiation from passing through, so that
people have to utilize artificial light.
Buildings must have:
-heating system to maintain a minimum temperature of
around 18 degrees C in the winter,
-double window or storm windows to protect people from
strong winds, and low temperatures,
-a tank for storage of fuel oil during the winter,
-if the houses are located in rural areas, they also have a
basement that protects people in case of tornadoes or other
weather related hazards,
-most of the places need air conditioning system because of
the extreme high temperatures and humidity of the summer.
PROSPECTS FOR CULTURAL
CONTACTS:
We all know that today’s era is the era of interaction and
due to the differences of ideas and beliefs countries of
the world are hesitate to share their reservations with
each other. That is why we see a sharp distance among
the different cultures of the world. The world is going so
fast and becoming the hub of evil activities and being
the builder of the coming world we, the new generation,
should come ahead with a new visions and peaceful
ideas. In this regard the avenue of the climate and its
alteration can be helpful for us. Because most of the
countries of the world are facing environmental issues
and are unable to cope with them due to the lack of
cooperation.
Here are the few suggestions and prospects by which we
can introduce possible avenues in the way of cultural
contacts.
•We can work on the impact of climate variability on
human health from an ecological systems perspective.
The identification of the causal relationships and
interactions between climatic events, regional ecology
and human behavior are vital possibilities in this regard.
 We can also focus upon migration patterns, land use change,
and infectious disease transmission in order to examine
governmental and non-governmental responses to these
interactions and to disease incidence.
•Investigating these interactions in one region risks focusing on a
set of interactions that are very location-specific. The interaction
between agricultural production, migrations, and migrationrelated health status changes needs to be systematically studied
in zones with different climate variability and climate adaptations
if we are to develop appropriate early warning systems and other
mechanisms to facilitate positive adaptations to climate
variability.
In this regard work has already been done by experts who
initiated comparative study of two very different climatic zones:
Mali, in the Sahel, and Kenya, in East Africa. These particular
climatic zones embody both similarities and contrasts in their
climate situation, productive ecologies, and health situations.
CONCLUSION:
In the light of ongoing discussion what we conclude that
climatic variation is one of the stimulating elements in
the human activities which not only effects its basis but
also opens new avenues for the cultural harmony and
contacts. It has devastating as well as constructive
nature but the fact that by using such types of
opportunities the inter and intra states relations can be
improved for peaceful world.
SEARCH ENGINE AND
RESOURCES
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals
www.google.com
www.yahoo.com
Encarta Encyclopedia
CONTRIBUTED BY:
Jafri Otham and his team
Abir Abdallah and his team
Luis Jorge and his team
PREPARED BY:
TEAM OF SULTAN MOHAMED SHAH AGA
KHAN SCHOOL, KARACHI, PAKISTAN.
Nazlin Shiraz
Learning Area Cordinator (English)
Muhammad Azeem
Social Sciences Learning Area Teacher
Sarfaraz Vallani
Computer Instructor
Students of Class VIII – A (42)
Nazlin Shiraz
Thank You