TERRESTRIAL
BIODIVERSITY &
FORESTRY
CHAPTER 23
There is unrest in the forest
There is trouble with the trees
For the maples want more sunlight
And the oaks ignore their pleas
The trouble with the maples
(and theyre quite convinced theyre right)
They say the oaks are just too lofty
And they grab up all the light
But the oaks cant help their feelings
If they like the way theyre made
And they wonder why the maples
Cant be happy in their shade?
There is trouble in the forest
And the creatures all have fled
As the maples scream `oppression!`
And the oaks, just shake their heads
So the maples formed a union
And demanded equal rights
the oaks are just too greedy
We will make them give us light
Now theres no more oak oppression
For they passed a noble law
And the trees are all kept equal
By hatchet,
Axe,
And saw ...
Land Use In The United States

1. PUBLIC LANDS
- 35 % of land in the United States
is designated as public and is
managed by the Federal
Government.
- Classified as…
A. Multiple-Use Lands
B. Moderately Restricted-use
Lands
C. Restricted-use Lands
Federal
35%
State and local
7%
Native American 3%
Private
55%
U.S. Land Ownership
A. Multiple-Use Lands:
- 155 Forests and 20 Grasslands
of the National Forest
System
- Managed by the U.S. Forest
Service
&
- National Resource Lands
- Managed by the Bureau of
Land Management
Uses for Multiple Use Land:
 Logging
 Mining
 Livestock
Grazing
 Farming
 Oil
 Gas
Extraction
 Recreation
 Sport Hunting and Fishing
 Off-Road vehicles are restricted to
certain areas
B. Moderately Restricted-Use
Lands:
National Wildlife Refuges
- Managed by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service
Uses for Moderately Restricted
Land
Sport Fishing and Hunting
Oil and Gas extraction
Mining
Logging
Grazing
Farming
Some Military Action
C. Restricted-Use Lands:
National Park System
- Managed by the National
Park Service
and
- 630 road less areas of the
National Wilderness
Preservation System
Uses for Restricted Use Land:
 Recreational
activities
 Camping
 Non-motorized
vehicles
 Logging
 Sport
Hunting
 Horseback riding
 Grazing
 Mining
 No Commercial buildings
permitted

Yellowstone
National parks and preserves
National forests
National wildlife refuges
National wildlife refuges
National parks and preserves
National forests
I. Managing and Sustaining
Forests
Ecological
-Support food
webs
-Act as sponge
-Influence local
climate
-Habitat
Economic
-Fuel wood,
50%
-Timber
-Pulp
-Medicines
1.
MAJOR TYPES OF FORESTS
- tropical, temperate, boreal
A. OLD-GROWTH FOREST
B. SECOND-GROWTH FOREST
C. Tree Plantations (tree farms)
A. OLD-GROWTH
FOREST
Emergent
Birds,
invertebrates,
bats
•Undisturbed by
humans and/or
natural disasters
Canopy
Birds,
reptiles,
amphibians,
lichens, mosses
Understory
•High biodiversity
Snag
•Increased
recycling of
nutrients and good
habitat
Shadetolerant
plants, birds,
squirrels,
lizards,
chipmunks
Floor
Rotting debris,
worms,
insects,
bacteria
Bole
Subsoil
Nematodes,
microrganisms
B. SECOND GROWTH FORESTS
-Result from SECONDARY
SUCCESSION
-May result from clearcutting
C. Tree Plantations
Uniform ages of one species
Harvested by clear-cutting as
soon as they become valuable
Replanted and clear-cut on
regular cycles
MONOCULTURE:
Grow only one type of
specimen
*An attempt to produce
products more efficiently
 Tries to hold back succession
 Using
DNA Technology to
build in resistance and
produce stronger trees
Test Tube Tree
Characteristics of Monoculture
forestry
 Production
of wood products in a
predictable fashion
 Even-aged
management
 Loss
of soil nutrients
 Does
not increase biodiversity
The Strange Side Effects
of Trees on Steroids

2. WHAT IS HAPPENING TO THE
WORLD’S FORESTS?
- World-wide human activity has
reduced the earth’s forest by
46%
-In North America and Europe
forests are on the upswing
More than
1% loss
0.5–1% loss
0–0.5 loss
Stable or
increased forest
No data
Annual Deforestation
Rates

3. TYPES OF FOREST MANAGEMENT
Wood volume or wood
biomass
- The total volume of wood
produced varies as it goes
through different stages of
growth and succession
B
Long rotations
C
Short rotation
Old-growth harvest
(such as hardwoods
for furniture)
A
Time
Weak trees
removed
Clear
cut
Seedlings
planted
25
15
10
30
5
Years of growth
- Two basic forest management techniques…
A. Even-Aged Management:
- Also called INDUSTRIAL
FORESTRY
- Trees are kept as same size and
age
-Example: Tree farms
*Extensive research in Germany has
shown that soil had become depleted
PA Forest Management
 Most
of the forests are Even Aged
 Average age of trees 80-120
years
Tree Diameter & Management
 Important
consideration of Even Aged
Management
 Trees of the same age may vary in diameter
Factors that impact tree diameter:
 Variation among species growth rates
 Soil and Site conditions
 Genetics
 DBH
(Diameter at Breast Height) can be
measured with a Biltmore Stick
E. Measuring and
Cutting Trees
Using a Biltmore Stick - Diameter
1.
Hold the stick at breast height (4.5
feet from the ground), 25" from your
eye, with the back of the stick against
the tree you are measuring.
2.
Hold the stick at a right angle to the
axis of the tree and keep your eyes
level with the stick.
3.
Adjust the stick so that the left or zero
is in line of sight with the left side of
the tree.
4.
Without moving your head, shift the
line of sight to the right hand side of
the trunk.
5. Read the diameter on the stick nearest
the point at which the line of sight
crosses it.
Using a Biltmore Stick - Height

1. Total tree height is measured from the
ground to the top of the tree. Merchantable
tree height is measured from the stump
height to the point at which the tree is no
longer useable.

2. Stand 66 feet from the tree you are
going to measure. If the ground is not
level, stand on a spot which has about the
same elevation as the base of the tree.

3. Hold the stick vertical, 25" from your
eye, with the “Height of Tree” side facing
toward you.

4. Align the base of the stick at the ground
(or at your estimated stump height for
merchantable height).

5. Without moving your head, shift your
line of sight so you can read the height at
the point where your line of sight and the
top of the tree intersect (or merchantable
height).
Using a Diameter Tape

Hold the tape at 4.5 Ft from
the highest ground level at the
base of the tree (Known as
DBH)
 Arrange the tape horizontally
around the trunk. Any deviation
from horizontal will cause you
to overestimate dbh, and as
dbh squared is used to
calculate basal area, basal area
can be very much
overestimated in this way; and
 Pull the tape as tightly as
possible.
The Biltmore Stick
Classifying a Forest Based on
Predominant Tree Size
3 Categories for describing tree diameter:
1.) Seedling-Sapling: DBH < 5”
2.) Mid-Size Tree: DBH 5-11”
3.) Large Tree: DBH > 11”
B. UnEven-Aged Management:
- Trees are kept at a variety of
ages and sizes
-Goals are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Biological diversity
Long-term sustainable
production of timber
Moderate economical return
Multiple use of forests

4. HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
A. Selective Cutting:
- Mature trees are cut singly or in
small groups
-reduces crowding
-encourages growth
-protects against soil erosion
-maintains uneven growth
-Maintains habitat
Selective Cutting
HIGH GRADING
- When only the largest and
best species are used.
- Problem: Remove the
strongest species
-
REVERSE NATURAL
SELECTION
B. Shelterwood Cutting:
-Removes all mature trees in
two/three cuttings over a
period of 10 years.
-allows natural seeding
-keeps seedlings from
crowding
-reduces soil erosion
-provides good habitat for
wildlife
Cut 2
Cut 1
Shelterwood Cutting
C. Seedtree Cutting:
-Harvests nearly all a stand’s
trees in one cutting
-Leave a few seed-producing
trees behind to regenerate the
area.
-Leads to genetic improvement
in new stands
Seed-Tree Cutting
D. Clear Cutting:
-Removal of all trees from an
area in a single cutting
The area may be…
A whole stand
A strip
A series of patches.
Clear-Cutting
Issues Concerning Clear
Cutting
PROS
- INCREASE YIELD
- LESS SKILL
NEEDED
- INCREASED $
- BEST WAY TO
HARVEST TREE
FARMS
CONS
- LEAVES LARGE
OPENINGS IN
FOREST
- REDUCES BIODIVERSITY
- INCREASES
SOIL EROSION
- FLOODING
E. Strip Cutting:
Type
of Clear-cutting
Removes a strip of trees
along the contour of the
land
Narrow enough to allow
for natural regeneration
Strips are harvested every
30-40 years
Uncut
Cut
Cut
Cut
3–5 years ago 1 year ago
6–10 years ago
Strip Cutting
Uncut
 5. FOREST SUSTAINABILITY
-Longer rotation of timber
growth (point C)
-Use anti-erosion techniques
-Assist Natural Regeneration
 6. FOREST PESTS/DISEASE
A. Parasitic Fungi:
Chestnut Blight (China)
Dutch Elm (Europe)
White Pine Blister (Europe)
Beech Bark Disease
B. Parasitic Insects:
•Bark
Beetles
•Gypsy
Moth
•Hemlock woolly
adelgid
Forest Pests of Pennsylvania
Eastern Tent
Caterpillar
Hemlock Woolly
Adelgid
Gypsy Moth- came from Europe
The ladybird beetle, Pseudoscymnus
tsugae, is a known predator of the
hemlock woolly adelgid. P. tsugae is a
native insect of Japan, where it is
observed to aggressively attack and
control the hemlock woolly adelgid,
Adelges tsugae Annand. Beginning in
1992, extensive research efforts were
undertaken in the northeastern United
States to breed and release this
ladybird beetle in an effort to combat
the hemlock woolly adelgid. Mass
rearing and release of P. tsugae in
Pennsylvania began in 1999. Efforts to
establish this predator are continuing,
and, to date, more than 117,000
ladybird beetles have been released in
Pennsylvania.
Visit
http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/pests/index.aspx
to find out more about the Pests that Harm
PA Forests
Twolined
Chestnut
Borer
White Pine
Weevil
The Newest Invasive Threats
Larvae of the beetle feed in the tissues under the
bark of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) causing the
girdling and death of branches and entire trees.
Adults of the species are active from mid-May
until early August. Since its discovery in Michigan,
the beetle has been detected in Ohio, Maryland,
Virginia, Indiana and neighboring areas in
Canada. In Michigan alone, over 7 million ash
trees have been lost to this pest. Signs of
emerald ash borer include upper crown dieback,
woodpecker damage, sinuous galleries under the
bark, and "D"-shaped emergence holes.
Girdled Tree by
Emerald Ash
Borer
The Asian longhorned beetle was first identified in North America
in New York in 1996. Larvae of the beetle feed in the stems and
branches of many hardwood tree species including maple,
boxelder, alder, elm, birch, poplar, and willow. Continued feeding
can lead to the death of branches and entire trees. Adults of the
species are active from mid-May until early August. Since its
discovery in New York, it has become established in Illinois, New
Jersey, and Toronto, Ontario, where it is responsible for the
destruction of over 8,000 trees. Recently a new infestation has
been discovered near Carteret, New Jersey.
Signs of Asian longhorned beetle infestation include dieback of
the upper crown, sawdust around the tree, and dime-sized, round
emergence holes.
A disease-causing oak mortality was first
discovered in California in 1995. Termed
sudden oak death, it was later determined that
the causal agent was a newly described fungal
pathogen, Phytophthora ramorum.
Sudden oak death can be recognized by crown
dieback, leaf discoloration, or the presence of black
or red ooze bleeding from cankers on the bark.
Removal of diseased bark will reveal necrotic tissue
surrounded by black zone lines. Homeowners can
help to stop the spread of sudden oak death by
landscaping with native plants.
 7. FOREST FIRES
http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us/#
Types of Forest Fires:
A. Surface FiresBurn leaf litter and ground clutter
Controlled & Not dangerous
*cone bearing trees benefit*
Surface fire
Fig. 23.12a, p. 599
B. Crown Fires•Burn in the treetops
Crown fire
Fig. 23.12b, p. 599
C. Ground Fires Underground and
burn partially
decayed leaves or
peat
 Common
bogs
in peat
FIRE
*Forest Fire Prevention:
-Controversial
policy…
-Since 1972…
-Let forest fires burn
themselves out as
long as not a danger
to humans.
-Calls for change
after fires of 1994
and 2000.
SHOW SMOKEY THE BEAR VIDEO
*Forest Fire Prevention Techniques:
-Education
-Prescribed Burning
-Presuppression
-Suppression
http://kdka.com/national/texas.oklahoma.fir
es.2.981359.html
Salt is used as the red fire retardent
Pa Fires - 2002
II. Forest Resources/Management
1. Today’s USA
Status:
 Since
1960, vast
increase in the
number of tree
plantations
 USA
has set aside
protected areas
 Forest
covers about 1/3 of the
lower 48 United States.
 Forest are generally bigger and
healthier than in 1920.
Virgin forests, 1620
Virgin forests, 1998
National Forest Management
Timber Companies
Environmentalists
-Want to increase -Timber from national
logging to satisfy forest is small % of wood
demand…
used
-Improvement of -Timber from national
forest health…
forests does little to drop
prices
-Provides jobs…
-Recreation should be the
-Provide cheap
most important use of
timber
forest
2. Pennsylvania’s
Forest Status
Pennsylvania’s Forests
In the Past…
 1630 = 95% forest
 1907 = 30% forest
 2000 = 58% forest
 No net loss of forestland statewide
in the past several years
Areas of Concern:
 South East and South Central PA
forests
2 Biggest Problems With PA
Forests:
Urban Sprawl
 Greatest in Southeast


White-tailed Deer Browsing- destruction of tree
seedlings
Red Maple
Black Birch
Black
Cherry
What do We Do With the Wood?
PA forests provide raw materials for:
Fine Furniture, Cabinets, Hardwood floors
& Paper
 $5.5 billion in products
 100,000 jobs
 86
Billion Board Feet
of Lumber
3. How To Reduce Tree Needs
Increase the efficiency of wood use
- Increase paper recycling
-
-Use alternative
fibers
-EX: Kenaf (rapidly
growing woody
plant)
-Agricultural
residue
Timber cut (billions of board feet)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
2000
2010
Fig. 23.14a, p. 601
Annual recreational visits (millions)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
2000
2010
Fig. 23.14b, p. 601
1.
III. Ecological Restoration
Restoration Ecology -
Research and scientific study
devoted to restoring, repairing,
and reconstructing damaged
ecosystems
Done Through…
-Eliminating disruptive nonnative
species
-Holding an ecosystem at a
particular desirable stage of
succession
-Speeding up natural ecological
succession
-Using natural restoration
Forest Conservation
Diversity in Layers
How a Forest Forms