[SKRIV FIRMAETS NAVN]
Crisis management within the
Peace Corps
A case study of the Peace Corps’ handling of Sexual
assaults of their female volunteers
Lisa Mallner 091088-3070 and Mie Jørgensen 050386-2468
Supervisor: Susan Baca
8th Semester project
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Abstract
The overall focus of the paper is crisis management within the Peace Corps, specifically in regards
to sexual assault. The current crisis management plan for sexual assault of Peace Corps volunteers
has been criticized for being ineffective and at worst damaging to victims. This paper attempts to
explain one cause of this inadequacy by applying the paradigm theory of crisis management,
posited by Gilpin and Murphy, in which the dominant worldview taken by an organization affects
all aspects in an organizational system, including crisis management.
First the paper discusses the overarching paradigms of rational and complex organizational theory
before analyzing how the Peace Corps sexual assault crisis response falls under these paradigms.
The paper zooms in on the four basic parameters of crisis management discussed by Gilpin and
Murphy: organizational learning, organizational boundaries, predictability of the environment and
the purpose of the crisis plan within the Peace Corps and how they fall under these paradigms. The
analysis shows the Peace Corps crisis plan adheres to a more rational paradigm and incorporates
few elements from complexity theory. The implications of adherence to this paradigm are analyzed
for effectiveness for both victims and the organization. This is done by analyzing current and recent
crisis response plans, related Peace Corps statements, interviews with victims and relevant news
reports. The findings show that the rational paradigm used in the Peace Corps sexual assault
response plan is incompatible with victims’ needs and in some cases is the cause of victim-blaming
and other damaging effects.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction (Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen) ..................................................................... 4
2. Theory (Lisa Mallner) ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Definition of an organization .................................................................................................... 6
3.
2.2.
Rational Paradigm (Lisa Mallner) ......................................................................................... 6
2.3.
Complex Paradigm (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................................ 8
2.4.
Comparison of CP with RAP (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................ 9
2.5.
Limitations of the theory (Lisa Mallner) ............................................................................. 10
Methodology (Mie Jørgensen) ................................................................................................... 11
3.1.
Philosophy of science (Mie Jørgensen) ............................................................................... 11
3.2.
Research design (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................................... 12
3.2.1.
Case study as a method (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................ 12
3.2.2.
Why conducting a case study (Lisa Mallner)............................................................... 13
3.2.3.
Limitations (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................................... 13
3.3.
Methods of analysis (Mie Jørgensen) .................................................................................. 14
3.3.1.
Methods applied in analysis 1 (Mie Jørgensen) ........................................................... 15
3.3.2.
Methods applied in analysis 2 (Mie Jørgensen) ........................................................... 17
3.4.
Operationalizing of the theory (Lisa Mallner) .................................................................... 18
3.4.1.
3.4.1.1.
3.4.2.
3.4.2.1.
3.4.3.
Organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner) ................................................................... 18
Operationalizing the parameter (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................ 18
Organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)........................................................................ 19
Operationalizing the parameter ................................................................................ 19
Purpose of the crisis plan for sexual assaults (Mie Jørgensen) .................................... 20
3.4.3.1......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.4.3.2.
3.4.4.
3.4.4.1.
4.
Operationalizing of the parameter ............................................................................ 20
Predictability of the environment (Mie Jørgensen)...................................................... 21
Operationalizing of the parameter ............................................................................ 22
Analysis 1 – the paradigm foundation for the crisis management (Lisa Mallner) ..................... 22
4.1.
Parameter 1 – organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)......................................................... 22
4.2.
Parameter 2 – organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner) .................................................... 26
4.3.
Parameter 3 – predictability of the environment. (Mie Jørgensen) ..................................... 26
4.3.1.
4.4.
Results of the analysis (Mie Jørgensen) ....................................................................... 27
Parameter 4 - Purpose of the crisis plan for sexual assaults (Mie Jørgensen)..................... 30
4.4.1.
Primary stakeholders (Mie Jørgensen) ......................................................................... 30
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4.4.2.
4.5.
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Analysis of the empirical material (Mie Jørgensen) .................................................... 31
Summary of the results (Lisa Mallner)................................................................................ 33
5. Analysis 2 – Does the paradigm the PC adheres to explain the issues the victims are having
with the crisis management? (Lisa Mallner) ...................................................................................... 34
5.1.
Analysis of organizational boundaries and how the organization learns (Lisa Mallner) .... 34
5.1.1.
Organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)....................................................................... 34
5.1.2.
Organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner) ................................................................... 37
5.2. Analysis of issues concerning predictability of the environment and the purpose of the
crisis plan (Mie Jørgensen) ............................................................................................................ 37
5.2.1.
Predictability of the environment (Mie Jørgensen)...................................................... 38
5.2.2.
Purpose of the crisis plan (Mie Jørgensen) .................................................................. 39
5.2.2.1.
Centralized information ............................................................................................ 39
5.2.2.2.
Single-loop learning ................................................................................................. 40
5.3.
6.
Summary of the results (Lisa Mallner)................................................................................ 40
Complex suggestions for Crisis management (Lisa Mallner) .................................................... 41
Generalization of Results (Lisa Mallner) ........................................................................................... 41
7.
Conclusion (Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen) .......................................................................... 42
7.1.
8.
Discussion/ putting the results into perspective .................................................................. 43
Bibliography............................................................................................................................... 45
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1. Introduction (Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen)
The Peace Corps (PC) is an American humanitarian organization that has just celebrated its’ 50th
anniversary. Founded by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, the PC sends volunteers to partner
with locals in underdeveloped nations overseas to improve their quality of life. This altruistic work
attracts a predominantly white population and draws many more women than men: 74% of PC
Volunteers are Caucasian, 60% are female, 85% are younger than 30, 95% are single, and the
majority are recent college grads (Appendix 1). When volunteers are stationed abroad they come to
a culture completely foreign to them, far from everything they know. This creates some unusual
challenges for the PC, especially in regards to cultural differences and volunteer safety.
Statistically, young women in their early to mid 20’s, the majority of PC volunteers, are the highest
risk group for rape and sexual assault (Appendix 1). Unfortunately, reports from volunteers
indicate that the PC has had problems addressing this issue. Additionally, the dangers involved in
overseas humanitarian work are routinely downplayed so as not to tarnish the idealistic image of the
PC (Ross, 2011).
More than 1,000 incidents of sexual assault have been reported by Peace Corps volunteers over the
last 10 years, including 115 in 2009 (Ross, 2011). These numbers are likely to be an underestimate
because many victims of sexual violence do not report the crime (Ross, 2011). However, the
idealized vision of the PC belies serious discussion of these facts.
In January 2011, Brian Ross of ABC news investigated the assault of several PC volunteers and the
failure of the PC to handle the crisis (Ross, 2011). This is a definitive indication that there are
problems with PC crisis management of sexual assault. This project sets out to identify some of
these issues. How come the PC fails to address sexual assault in a manner that is acceptable to
victims? Surely the individuals working in the PC have no desire to hurt their volunteers.
One explanation could be that there is a problem in how the Peace Corps is trying to address the
issue of sexual assaults. This paper focuses on how the Peace Corps is managing sexual assault
crisis response. More specifically, it attempts to identify if the paradigm that is the foundation for
the crisis management in the PC is affecting the handling of sexual assaults of volunteers. The
paradigm refers to the rational and complex approaches to crisis management within the PC. The
rational and complex paradigms, developed by Gilpin and Murphy, are based on the respective
paradigms of positivism and constructivism. Gilpin and Murphy’ theory is used because it focuses
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explicitly on crisis management. Thus this paper aims to address the source of some issues in the
crisis management of sexual assault in the PC by analyzing the paradigms that are the basis for the
current crisis plan.
The research question of the paper is as follows:
“Which of the paradigms 1) rational and 2) complex can best explain the Peace Corps’ crisis
management concerning sexual assaults, and does the paradigm adhered to contribute to
mishandling of sexual assault response in the PC?”
The research question will be answered in two sections:
1. An analysis for which paradigm best explains the crisis plan and the crisis management.
2. An analysis of whether the paradigm adhered to by the PC negatively affects sexual assault
crisis management.
The choice of theory and methods applied throughout the paper naturally sets limitations for what is
examined in the paper. The underlying paradigm for the crisis management of sexual assault is
only one aspect where problems could occur. We are aware that there are other problems that could
be addressed as well, and thus the subject is not depleted, hence further research could be done.
The paper will consist first of a description of the theory applied in the analysis followed by a
section on methodology entailing research design and methodological considerations. Next is an
analysis that aims at identifying the paradigm and how it can best explain how the PC has handled
the crisis management. Fourth follows a section that tries to examine whether the problems that the
victims have with the crisis management of sexual assault could perhaps have been better
addressed, had the paradigm been the opposite of the findings, or if the paradigm makes no
difference to the crisis management. Lastly is a conclusion where the research question is answered
as best as possible, and there will be a discussion of the possibilities for expanding the findings to
other helping organizations with the same characteristics as the PC.
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2. Theory (Lisa Mallner)
The following entails a review of the overall theoretic frame of the analysis, the paradigm theory.
First will be a review of the rational paradigm followed by a section explaining the complex
paradigm. How the theory will be applied in the analysis is written under section 3.4.,
operationalizing the theory.
2.1. Definition of an organization
For the purposes of this paper, the organization will be understood as “a social unit of people,
systematically structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing
basis. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between
functions and positions, and subdivides the delegate’s roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry
out defined tasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the
environment beyond their boundaries” (businessdictionary.com, 1). This definition is appropriate
for the authors’ view of the organization as a dynamic entity with multiple aspects.
2.2.
Rational Paradigm (Lisa Mallner)
Crisis management planning is “traditionally based on the assumption of rationality”, and the PC is
no exception (Gilpin, 2008: 91). When applied to crisis management, the rational model of the
organization is known as the Rational-choice or Rational Actor Paradigm (RAP) (Gilpin, 2008: 91).
The broadest definition of the RAP is that organizations will act rationally, optimally, and with
self-interest (Jaeger, 1998: 211). This paradigm assumes the classical view that humans are capable
of rational decision making but furthermore believes that actions are based on individual decisions
as opposed to group decisions (Gilpin, 2008: 91). Therefore, all actions can be reduced to individual
choice. The RAP perceives that rationality can explain individual decision making. In the RAP
worldview, people will act in a strategic manner as they are able to link decisions to outcomes.
Individuals are motivated to pursue self-chosen goals when making decisions, and individual utility
is optimized so that people select the decision that leads to the most personal satisfaction. This
paradigm also takes into account personal preferences which can aid in predicting individuals’
actions. RAP is both a model of how people decide, and a justification of their actions (Jaeger,
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1998). This gives an element of control and predictability to how individuals within an organization
make decisions. Under RAP, people are goal-oriented and will make decisions that are most
appropriate to achieving their individual goals. The RAP includes risk and crisis studies as part of
this goal-oriented mindset.
The paradigm assumes that this goal-oriented behavior is a cornerstone of human interaction, and
thus the basis of organizational structures (Gilpin, 2008: 91-92). By extension, collective actions
within an organization are the result of individual rational decision-making. Because individual
decisions occur within the constraints of an organization, organizations viewed through the RAP are
best understood through their planning and structure. Formalized rules, regulations, and
specialization of members are a basis for rational decision making. The structure of the organization
is therefore also the philosophical basis for explaining and controlling risk (Gilpin, 2008: 108).
When this set of fundamental assumptions linked to individual behavior is also extrapolated to
situations of collective decision making or collective impacts of individual decisions, there are a
number of related presumptions. People will maximize their utility by choosing the option that leads
to the maximum payoff. Within an organization, this can lead to social and economic equilibrium
only if individuals have equal access to resources and information and are allowed to compete with
each other (Jaeger, 1998: 209). Other additional assumptions relied upon for collective actions by
an organization in the RAP are shown in Table 2.1.
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Table 2.1.
Philosophy
Assumptions
Methodological individualism
The aggregation of all social actions can be
interpreted as a network of small individual actions
Organizations as 'virtual individuals'
Organizations as a whole behave like individuals in
that they make decisions that are the most appropriate
to reach specific goals
Extension of individual preferences to
Organizations may aggregate individual preferences
aggregate preference structures
to resemble both the sum of all individual preferences
and their collective interests
Effectiveness of organizational
Organizations can provide links between individual
principles and practices
success and social welfare (i.e. the 'invisible hand of
markets' theory)
Indifference to promoting values and
Values are irrelevant and preferences are pre-existing
preferences
and exist as a given (they are not created during
decision making)
The allocation and effects of
Priority is assigned to the most efficient allocations of
distribution of resources are
resources regardless of the effects of distribution
independent from each other
As Gilpin writes, “The RAP paradigm is appropriate for ensuring the most effective and efficient
production and exchange of goods and services, without overlying ethical norms and principles can
lead to inequality and tension among an organizations members” (Gilpin, 1998: 91).
2.3.
Complex Paradigm (Lisa Mallner)
The flipside of the RAP is known as the complex paradigm (CP). The CP recognizes a more
subjective base of assumptions. Philosophically, the CP assumes that the future is “unknowable yet
recognizable”, and thus impossible to have control over (Gilpin and Murphy, 1998: 24).
Furthermore, the complexity paradigm assumes that there are numerous uncontrollable exogenous
factors that can influence events. By extension, it is similarly impossible to anticipate and control
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the events in a crisis. The CP embraces this ambiguity of events as opposed to attempting a measure
of control. There is a strong focus on communication as the primary tool for deciding on what
actions to take. Through communication, the CP posits that an organization can adapt to changing
circumstances and best resolve crisis by constantly changing its behavior to fit a situation (Gilpin
and Murphy, 1998: 26). Unlike the “mechanical” nature of the RAP, the organization in the CP is
an organic entity that may have some overarching characteristics but overall demonstrates a large
variability of behavior. Boundaries are fluid, alliances constantly change, and stakeholders have
varying degrees of influence. Whereas the RAP focuses on the 'bigger picture' view of an
organizations behavior, CP highlights the 'micro' behaviors of organizations – single interactions
and daily occurrences (Gilpin and Murphy, 1998: 28).
In crisis communication, the CP advises the use of those members with the best expertise in the
crisis area to make key decisions and obtain other information on an ad-hoc basis. In time sensitive
issues, expertise must be developed or brought in from outside the organization before decisions
can be made.
2.4.
Comparison of CP with RAP (Lisa Mallner)
CP and RAP are the two paradigms that will be integral in analyzing the PC sexual assault crisis
plan. This paper will show how the current plan falls under the RAP, and whether the CP would
perhaps be a more appropriate paradigm for a sexual assault crisis plan. These paradigms have a
number of fundamentally different philosophical assumptions, which are summarized in the table
below (Table 2.2.).
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Table 2.2.
Assumptions
Predicting the
future
Controlling events
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Rational Actor Paradigm
The future can be predicted to
some extent as human
behavior is rational
Events can be controlled and
influenced
Ambiguity vs.
stability
Ambiguity should be avoided
and can be overcome. Stability
is the preferred state.
Organizational
metaphors
Organizational
boundaries
Decision making
in crisis
management
The organization is like a
machine
Organizational boundaries are
clear and well-defined
The best response to a crisis is
to centralize decision -making
Complex Paradigm
The future cannot be predicted because
there so many factors involved that may
affect outcomes
It is impossible to control events as there
are too many exogenous factors and
micro-interactions at work
Ambiguity is unavoidable and should
therefore be embraced. Stability is
impossible as dynamic organizations are
inherently instable.
The organization is an organic system
Organizational boundaries are fluid and
dynamic
The best response to a crisis is to let
those with the most
knowledge/experience of the crisis make
decisions
Mistakes
will
be
identified
in
a
The organization will examine the many
Organizational
crisis plan post crisis and
causes of a crisis as well as the crisis plan
learning
updated accordingly; largely
before making changes; largely doublesingle-loop learning
loop learning
Detailed procedurals that have The necessary expertise for a crisis must
Best crisis
been previously prepared can
be developed before decisions can be
management
be used to make the best
made
practice
decisions during a crisis
(Gilpin, 1998: 108-109)
2.5.
Limitations of the theory (Lisa Mallner)
The complex and rational parameters are developed to address the specific issues that arise
concerning crisis management. They both have their point of departure in the more classical
paradigms. The complex paradigm can be seen as an expression of constructivism and the rational
as an expression for the post-positivism. The two classical paradigms might be more nuanced in
their understanding of the organizations as a whole, but as the paper focuses only on crisis
management within an organization the theory is fitting as it specifically addresses this. Thus the
theory applied is not the best for analyzing if the PC in general is constructivistic or post-positivistic
but is acceptable for analyzing the foundation of organizational crisis management.
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There are some issues concerning the analysis based on the empirical material. As the more
structured paradigm, the RAP will be more present in the empirical material available from the PC.
The material is released with public relations in mind and is therefore simplified. By extension, the
CP is not the ideal paradigm to analyze the PC sexual assault crisis plan for several reasons. The
findings might be biased towards a rational approach because the structured nature of the
documents made available for public viewing by the PC might not reflect a more complex reality.
The available material depicts an extremely simplified view of sexual assault. Unfortunately, it is
not an option to do in depth interviews with employees to examine whether the public information
reflects their experiences.
3.
Methodology (Mie Jørgensen)
The following entails first a section on the philosophy of science containing the epistemological and
ontological position of this paper, hence the paradigm that will be adhered to throughout the paper,
and how this affects the findings in the paper. Second follows a section on the research design,
focusing on case study as a method and the justification for applying this method. Third an
overview of the methods is applied within the case study to answer the research question. Finally
there will be an operationalizing of the theoretic parameters applied in the analysis.
3.1.
Philosophy of science (Mie Jørgensen)
According to Guba, a paradigm is characterized by it’s relation to three questions - 1) ontological,
2) epistemological and 3) methodological (Guba, 1990: 17). The paradigm adhered to throughout
this paper is that of post-positivism, although some of the premises from social constructivism are
acknowledged. These will be discussed later in the paper.
Ontology focuses on the nature of reality, that is, whether or not there is in fact a reality out there to
examine (Ibid. 18). As post-positivist’s, it is believed that there is a reality out there, but that it can
never be fully understood by imperfect human beings, as people subjectively interpret results (ibid.:
20). However, when conducting research we aim at getting close to the truth.
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While the paper is written within a post-positivistic paradigm, some of the premises from social
constructivism are still acknowledged. This means that it is accepted that some of the phenomena
that are observed are in fact socially constructed. When more than one person perceives a situation
in the same way, this perception becomes truthful, creating inter-subjectivity (Andersen, 2010: 23).
When more people have the same perception of a phenomenon, a system is created to observe it that
sets it apart from individually experienced phenomena (Ibid.). Because it is believed that there is a
truth to be found, the research design aims to find a connection between the paradigm and crisis
management. This means that the results will be interpreted as being valid, at least until falsified by
further research.
The epistemological question focuses on the relationship between the known and the knower, hence
whether one can conduct research whilst being objective (Guba, 1990: 18). As mentioned above,
the post-positivists believe that one will to some degree affect the results when conducting research,
and thus one cannot be objective (Ibid. 29). This might be reflected in the findings. The project
examines a certain area and connection that we believe exists, and therefore this will affect the
findings. Due to this subjectivity, it is not possible to fully verify scientific knowledge; it can only
be falsified (Popper, 1995: 33). However, it is believed that the subjectivity can be reduced by
applying the right design and methods in observation (Andersen, 2010: 22). Therefore, the
methodology applied should preferably be that of triangulation, as this makes it possible to examine
the case by the use of different means, strengthening the results (Guba, 1990: 21).
3.2.
Research design (Lisa Mallner)
The following chapter will entail a discussion of the case study method and the particulars of the
data used for this paper. It will cover the decision to use a case study for analysis as well as the
applied methods.
3.2.1.
Case study as a method (Lisa Mallner)
The method chapter will illuminate the process of completing a case study. First there will an
explanation of how the empirical data for the study will be obtained. Second the chapter will
establish the validity of the data for use in the following project and how it can be utilized to answer
the research question.
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Case studies are most appropriate when they are used to explain a narrative by offering a more
complete view of a story. A case study will explain in detail what happened and why. The most
efficient way to get valid data for a case study is to triangulate both empirical and non-empirical
data. To obtain basic knowledge regarding the subject, research on the internet, in articles and
relevant literature will be used which will be documented in the bibliography. The basic knowledge
in this project is especially based on information disseminated by the PC website and interviews
from former and current PC volunteers. News reports, blogs, and relevant books will also be used.
A case study is advantageous in this project as it allows for more tangible details than other
methods such as surveys. A case study will allow us to present data collected from multiple
methods (interviews, reports, etc) to provide a complete story. However, there are a few limitations
when using a case study which will be described below.
3.2.2. Why conducting a case study (Lisa Mallner)
A case study is best suited to the following analysis as the amount and variability of the topic of
sexual assault within an organization make it difficult to draw conclusions from available data.
Sexual assault is an incredibly common occurrence as well as a constant threat. However, each
assault is unique to the perpetrator, victim, location, response, etc. By following the particulars of a
set of recent sexual assaults in one organization that has international reach, the details of the crisis
are put into sharper focus. A survey methodology, for example, may result in a reductivist and
potentially offensively narrow view on the range of responses and reactions to sexual assault within
an organization.
3.2.3. Limitations (Lisa Mallner)
There are several limitations to case studies, which have been taking into account in the project.
One pitfall of case studies is that they can lack rigor. The qualitative research that case studies
heavily rely upon can be considered unscientific if the researchers are not standardized and
meticulous in their data collection and do not take the proper steps to assure the validity or
reliability of their data sources.
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In this paper we have tried to overcome the fact that case studies can become unscientific by coding
the results of the analysis as systematically as possible and account for the steps taken. This offsets
the subjectivity of the researcher, and thus makes the findings more valid.
Another limitation is that case studies may be difficult to apply to multiple situations. It can be
difficult to generalize one specific case study to another, even though they may be on similar topics.
As a result, case studies are at risk of being overly generalized and ambiguous. A sample in a case
study may not be representative of a situation, so case studies are prone to data manipulation to
maintain relevance. Nonetheless, the intention of this case study is to be able to generalize the
results to other organizations with characteristics similar to the PC.
A case study can be conducted with the aim of it being generalizable to other similar cases, as is
seen in the definition of a case study by Gerring: “an intensive study of a single unit with an aim to
generalize across a larger set of units” (Gerring, 2004: 341). Flyvbjerg is another who makes the
argument that case studies can be generalizable: “The case study is ideal for generalizing using the
type of test that Karl Popper (1959) called “falsification”… Falsification is one of the most
rigorous tests to which a scientific proposition can be subjected.”(Flyvbjerg, 2006: 228).
The analysis focuses on examining the foundation for the crisis management and finding the
paradigm that is most appropriate for crisis management. Thus the intention is that the findings can
be generalized to other helping organizations, and the generalized findings can then either stand the
test of falsification or not in further research. As mentioned, the PC is characterized as a helping
organization, but further characteristics must be specified in order to determine to which other
organizations the findings can be generalized (Andersen, 2010: 55). Defining the characteristics is
somewhat subjective, so they too must be but through the test of falsification.
3.3.
Methods of analysis (Mie Jørgensen)
As mentioned in the above standing section the research question will be answered by conducting a
case study, as this is seen as the most feasible way to examine the question. The research question is
furthermore divided into two parts; hence the case study will also be divided in two. This section
describes the methods applied when answering the two parts of the research question.
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3.3.1. Methods applied in analysis 1 (Mie Jørgensen)
As mentioned in the introduction, the first part of the paper sets out to examine which paradigm can
best explain the foundation of the crisis management. Thus, the assumption is that the paradigm that
the PC adheres’ to informs crisis management. Adhering to a paradigm is the independent variable,
and crisis management is the dependent variable (Bryman, 2004: 29). The causality of the two
variables is:
Adhering to paradigm  crisis management
Now that the causality is defined, the next step is to decide how to conduct the actual analysis.
The correlation between the two variables mentioned will be examined by conducting a case study.
The data available for the case study is the PC web page, where public material is uploaded,
including annual reports on volunteer safety (appendix 1-4) and other statements on sexual assaults
(Appendix 5-11) essential for answering the research question. Online interviews of the some of the
sexual assault victims, conducted by the ABC News, will be applied in the analysis as well (Ross,
2011). Had it been possible it would have been relevant to conduct in-depth interviews or perhaps a
survey of PC employees involved in the handling of sexual assault, which also would have allowed
for a triangulation of methods. Due to limitations concerning space, time, and finances this has not
been possible. Fortunately, the research question can still be answered in a satisfying manner with
the material at hand, although the results will be less solid. With available material the most feasible
way of answering the first part of the research question is to conduct a discourse and content
analysis.
A content analysis is defined by many, but throughout this paper the definition by Bryman will be
applied: “An approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify content in terms
of predetermined categories and in a systemic and replicable manner.” (Bryman, 2004: 183). One
of the important aspects of this definition is that it has to be done in a systematic manner, which
helps suppress biases. A discourse analysis can focus on the latent content of the written (Ibid.),
which means that the researcher is interpreting the text, thus it becomes very important that this is
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done systematically to make up for the somewhat subjective interpretation. The systematic
approach also enhances the replicability of the study so findings become more valid.
The other aspect of the analysis, the discourse analysis, is to some degree similar to the content
analysis (Ibid. 370). Throughout this paper discourse is defined as a way of writing or speaking that
constructs a particular type of knowledge with practical and rhetorical implications (Marvasti 2004:
108). Discourse thus focuses on how issues are being framed, hence how they are articulated. It is
expected that this aspect will be important in parts of the analysis as it is not only important what is
written about sexual assault but also how it is written, if it is possible to define the paradigm that is
the foundation for the crisis management. As this is the aim of the analysis – identifying the
paradigm – the combination of content and discourse analysis is seen as the most fitting methods for
analyzing the case at hand.
As mentioned in the content analysis, it is important that the analysis is done systematically, so the
material at hand will be analyzed according to predefined parameters from the theory on paradigms.
Four parameters have been chosen on the basis of the theory. They are 1) organizational
boundaries; 2) organizational learning; 3) the purpose of the crisis plan and 4) predictability of the
environment. These parameters have been chosen for several reasons. First, the parameters are seen
to be fitting for analyzing the crisis plan and the perception of crisis, as they cover several different
aspects important to both the rational and complex paradigms. At the same time the two paradigms
position themselves very differently from the four parameters, hence the findings will be more
clear, and so it will be easier to categorize the findings according to the two paradigms. Second, the
parameters have been chosen on a pragmatic foundation of it being what was plausible to analyze
with the material at hand. Thirdly, due to space limits, it has not been possible to analyze the crisis
plan according to all aspects of the two parameters, so the ones that we found to be most relevant
and at the same time possible to analyze were chosen for the research. This means that the findings
are not as valid as they could be, as all aspects are not included in the analysis. This can be a
problem when conducting further research on the results.
As the material will be analyzed on predefined parameters it will be a closed coding (Andersen,
2010: 183). Coding is a way to categorize the information in the text according to terms or themes,
and in our case, the themes will be the parameters from the theory. Again coding is subjective, this
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can be compensated for by being systematic. As a result it must be made clear how the coding is
done, in order for the research to be replicable. How the parameters will be more specifically
examined is described in the section on operationalizing the theory.
3.3.2. Methods applied in analysis 2 (Mie Jørgensen)
The second part of the analysis focuses on whether the paradigm adhered to in the sexual assault
crisis management plan explains why the victims of sexual assault feel that the PC had failed them,
or if the paradigm has no influence. The basis for the analysis will be the results from the first
analysis combined with interviews of some of the women who have been sexually assaulted,
conducted by the ABC network (abcnews.go.com).
Once again, the methods applied will be discourse and content analysis, as this is seen as the most
feasible way of answering the research question with the material available. Another more
quantitative approach would have been to do surveys with a larger group of the female volunteers,
but as it is outside the limits of this project to contact the volunteers, especially as many assault
victims choose to remain anonymous. The best way to answer the research question is by the use of
the second hand material found online.
The material used for the analysis is interviews given by the victims. Because the interviews are
second hand data they might not cover all of the aspects relevant for the analysis, but nothing can be
done about this except to make the best of the information at hand. Another problem is that the
interviews might be biased, as the intention of the interviews is to show that the PC is not
addressing the issues of sexual assaults properly. However, because the intention of this analysis is
to address the issues that the women are having with the handling of the sexual assaults, this is not
seen as a big problem, because the analysis focuses on the victims’ side of the story.
The analysis will be divided into two sections that each addresses two of the predefined parameters
from analysis 1. The first part of the analysis focuses on the parameters 1) organizational learning
and 2) organizational boundaries, the second part of the analysis focuses on 1) predictability of the
environment and 2) purpose of the crisis plan. The empirical material is ABC interviews where
women tell of their experiences with the PC. The women are seen as informants and their different
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contributions will be handled as one case focusing on the issues they experienced with the PC’s
handling of the sexual assaults they were the victims of.
3.4.
Operationalizing of the theory (Lisa Mallner)
The following section entails a description of the four parameters chosen from the theory on
rational and complex paradigm for the analysis of the PC handling of sexual assaults. Those are as
mentioned 1) organizational boundaries; 2) organizational learning; 3) the purpose of the crisis plan
and 4) predictability of the environment. It will be both a theoretical description of the parameters
and how the parameters will be operationalized when conducting the analysis.
3.4.1. Organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner)
The parameter of organizational boundaries focuses on whether or not the organization can be
clearly defined from its environment or if the distinction is indeterminate. The rational paradigm
sees organizational boundaries as clearly defined and therefore clearly separated from both
environment and stakeholders (Gilpin, 2008: 108). This is very typical for the rational paradigm as
the precise definition of boundaries makes it easier to assume a complete overview of the
organization.
The complex paradigm conversely views the boundaries of an organization as socially constructed
and thereby constantly moving and changing (ibid.). Fluid boundaries blur the relationship between
an organization and its’ environment and stakeholders. This makes it difficult to define which
factors of an organization are exogenous and which are included.
3.4.1.1.
Operationalizing the parameter (Lisa Mallner)
The parameter of organizational boundaries will be analyzed by the use of the coding program
HYPERresearch, in order to examine the empirical documents for different characteristics of the
two approaches to organizational boundaries, and the results found will then be coded as either
rational or complex. HYPERresearch codes empirical documents for words or phrases that indicate
how the PC perceives its boundaries. For example, a section on how to the regional director must
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contact the US embassy would fall under both “US Embassy” and “regional director”. The coding
is then refined to only include aspects of the crisis plans relevant to decision making. In the
previous example, only the “regional director” is relevant as this is who is making the decision to
contact the embassy.
3.4.2. Organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)
The learning parameter focuses on how people within an organization learn and who is in control of
learning.
The rational approach for learning is that learning best takes place when it occurs systematically,
thus knowledge is gathered and analyzed according to predefined systems (Gilpin, 2008: 184).
Knowledge is seen as a something objective, or independent from the knower (Ibid. 56). This means
that the learning within an organization is top-down, as management defines what is to be learned.
The fact that learning is controlled by management means that the learning that takes place is
single-loop. Single-loop learning is the simplest form of learning which “involves finding and
correcting factors that prevent the organization from reaching its objectives” (ibid.: 74). This form
of learning is stabilizing and the organization will therefore be returning to status quo (ibid.)
The complex system has a different approach to learning. This approach sees learning as very
unstructured. Management facilitates an environment where learning takes place rather than
attempting to control learning (ibid.: 72). The form of learning that this approach fosters is that of
double-loop learning, where the organization will constantly question itself if the decisions being
made are the right ones (ibid. 74). Double-loop learning is more reflexive than single-loop learning,
and therefore the organization will not return to status quo, but continuously evolve and develop.
3.4.2.1.
Operationalizing the parameter
The empirical material will be coded by the use of the program HYPERresearch, a program that
indexes the empirical material according to the search terms. The words that the empirical material
has been indexed after are words that show if the learning process is single or double-looped and if
the learning is centralized, as this will give a good impression of whether the organizational
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learning can best be explained as rational or complex. This is done by identifying primary decision
makers in the learning process to determine if learning is management controlled or more organic.
3.4.3. Purpose of the crisis plan for sexual assaults (Mie Jørgensen)
The rational paradigm sees the primary purpose of the crisis plan as being able to return the
situation to status quo, because the crisis plan has to reduce the loss of organizational resources and
legitimacy in the eye of the key stakeholders (Gilpin, 2008: 109). It is seen as a circular event, so
the last stage of post crisis and recovery leads to the first stage of normal operation and procedures
(Seeger, 2003: 93). This means that there will be little development in the organization as the aim
will be to return to things as they were instead of developing the concept of the organization.
The rational paradigm believes that the best way to deal with crisis’ is to centralize information and
the decision making process around a crisis management team, hence it is a small predefined group
that has to bring the organization to status quo (Gilpin, 2008: 109).
The complex approach also sees reducing the loss of resources and legitimacy in the eye of key
stakeholders as the most important aspect. The focus on long-term legitimacy that is to be achieved
from double-loop learning, hence the goal is not to return to status quo, but to evolve and thereby
maintaining legitimacy (Gilpin, 2008: 109). So the aim is the same, but the perspective is different.
The complex paradigm also believes that an experienced group should lead the crisis management,
but they are not as narrowly defined, as the information is not centralized but needs to come from
different parts of the organization (Ibid.).
3.4.3.1.
3.4.3.2.
Operationalizing of the parameter
As the main purpose of the crisis plan is to be able to restore the legitimacy in the eye of the key
stakeholders, there will first be a discussion of who is identified as the key stakeholders for the PC.
Second it will address how the crisis plan aims at doing so. This will be done by analyzing the
empirical material in an attempt to establish whether it can best be described as complex or rational.
The data will therefore be coded by the predefined theoretic terms 1) single/ double-loop learning,
2) long/short term perspectives on legitimacy and 3) centralized/decentralized information.
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3.4.4. Predictability of the environment (Mie Jørgensen)
The predictability of the environment focuses on how well the organization can foretell when a
crisis is going to occur, based on the fact that it knows the environment and to some degree the
future. The parameter of predictability of the environment is analyzed using the theory on “The
knowing organization as the learning organization” by C. W. Choo. Choo focuses on sense-making,
which “involves interpreting the raw data of the environment by enactment, selection and retention”
(Choo, 2001: 197). This theory is seen as applicable for examining the perception of environment
because it focuses on how organizations make sense of and understand the environment. Decisions
are made on the basis of the perception of the environment and the organizations perception of the
future. According to this theory there are four different decision making modes for the organization,
two of which will be applied in the analysis, as they are seen as appropriate measurements for the
rational and the complex paradigm. These are 1) the bounded rational mode and 2) the anarchic
mode.
In the bounded rational mode organizations have standardized procedures they apply when scanning
the environment and making sense of information (Gilpin, 2008: 92). When you have a certain way
of looking at your environment it becomes predictable, as the information is sorted and placed in
predefined categories. Applying the bounded rational mode to organizations who believe that they
know their environment and to some degree the future is therefore seen as an expression of the
rational paradigm.
The anarchic mode is seen as an expression of the complex paradigm. Here there is a greater
openness to how the environment is understood (Choo, 2001: 202). There are standards for
analyzing the environment so the environment and the future are to some degree known, but at the
same time these procedures are loosely defined and the future therefore has a greater element of
ambiguity. This means that events cannot be controlled as they will be affected by exogenous
factors, so making a perfect crisis plan is impossible (Gilpin, 2008: 92).
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3.4.4.1.
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Operationalizing of the parameter
The two organizational modes - bounded rational mode and anarchic mode – will be the foundation
for the empirical analysis. The two are seen as a continuum, and it is therefore expected that the PC
will to some degree incorporate elements from both modes. The empirical material concerning the
predictability of the environment will therefore be coded according to the terms 1)
predictable/unpredictable environment, 2) structured/ unstructured interpretation of raw empirical
data and 3) generalized/not generalized presenting of with the intention of entering the findings in a
table. Furthermore the fact that the empirical material will be coded according to predefined terms
makes the finding more valid.
4.
Analysis 1 – the paradigm foundation for the crisis management (Lisa Mallner)
The following analysis will attempt to define the paradigm– whether complex or the rational – that
can best explain the PC’s crisis management in relation to sexual assaults. The analysis will be
divided into four parameters 1) organizational learning; 2) organizational boundaries; 3)
predictability of the environment and 4) purpose of the crisis plan. Finally there will be a summary
of the results found in the analysis.
4.1.
Parameter 1 – organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)
The PC Corps Annual Report of Volunteer Safety (appendix 1-4) highlights pre-crisis preparedness
for assault and post-crisis resource allocation to assault victims. The current crisis plan (appendix 1)
attempts to categorize and pre-determine measures to be taken during all assaults, leaving little
room for flexible interpretation.
The crisis plan divides assaults by a severity hierarchy, allocating crisis response resources by a set
of 'severity' definitions created by the PC. Vandalism is ranked lowest in severity and death is
ranked the highest. Sexual assaults are categorized into three areas with different levels of severity:
attempted rape, major sexual assault, or other sexual assault.
This crisis plan can be best placed within the RAP. A clear example of this is the current and former
crisis plans, which show an attempt to control and prevent sexual assaults through certain behaviors
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of volunteers. The current methods of crisis reporting have a strong emphasis on these behaviors,
including such details as the time of day of the attack and whether the victim was consuming
alcohol. The plan shows the organization is attempting to predict all possible ways a crisis could
occur and attempt to control volunteer safety via behavioral guidelines which are the same for all
countries and volunteers. This falls within the predictability aspect of single-loop learning, which
attempts to influence the future through changes in a closed system. Furthermore, the crisis
response plan encourages volunteers to act within a secure organizational structure, especially in
regards to crisis reporting. For victims of a 'major sexual assault', victims must fill out a crisis
response form before contacting a regional director, who will then inform relevant security, and so
on. The regional director will make major decisions regarding the volunteer's safety and security
and post-crisis activities, such as relocation or interviews with the media (appendix 1-4).
This reporting method has been criticized by victims for involving “too much red tap” (Ross, 2011).
However, it remains the only method of reporting available to PC volunteers. A singular method for
understanding and handling crisis, based on a predefined set of actions, is also a tenant of singleloop learning.
In assessing which paradigm this plan best fits, it is relevant to discern how decisions are being
made during crisis response. By coding the 3 most recent crisis response plans (from 2009, 2008,
and 2007) in HYPERresearch, a program that can index references within a text source, the crisis
plans can be assessed in regards to how much of the plan allows victims to act autonomously and
how much involves bureaucracy.
The percentages for decisions made by management (regional director, program manager, etc)
versus autonomy by the volunteer can be weighed against each other to determine who makes the
primary decisions regarding volunteer safety. Decision making is an important aspect in crisis plans
for sexual assault, as the safety, security, and comfort of the victim is of utmost importance. See the
appendix 13 for the coding list of terms, as well as which terms determine who the primary
decision-maker was. When the plans are combined and the codes are measured for percentage of
frequency, the results are as follows (Table 4.1.).
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Table 4.1.
Volunteer decision making
Other decision making (victim advocates, etc)
Managerial decision making
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
11,00%
2,00%
87,00%
The emphasis on bureaucratic decision making and volunteer behavior shows that the PC crisis
response plan and crisis training for sexual assault is engaged in single-loop learning.
Both pre and post crisis management occur solely from a top-down hierarchy. Volunteers are told to
communicate as soon as possible with their superiors in the aftermath of an assault, who will then
make decisions thereon. Furthermore, when assaults occur, volunteers are often derided for their
pre-crisis decision making. In the most recently used training video for sexual assault response, past
victims listed ‘bad decisions” they had made to “cause the assault” (Schecter, 2011, 1). According
to the most recent crisis plan, the victim is only given autonomy to file reports and relay
information to higher-ups, who will then make decisions regarding security, resource allocation,
relocation, etc.
There are clear flaws with this system. Primarily, the victim and the organization may have
conflicting aims or desires. The PC Commitment to Sexual Assault (appendix 7) states “The agency
recognizes that Volunteer's daily safety is, for the most part, best assured when they are well
integrated into the local community, valued and protected as extended family members”.
Unfortunately, more that 60% of the rapes that occurred in 2009 were instigated by a member of the
community who was known to the attacker; in many cases the attacker was a prominent local
community member (appendix 1). One volunteer assaulted last year said in an ABC interview that
“[my attacker] was the brother of my host mother and the boyfriend of a co-worker at the NGO
where I worked” (Schecter and Ross, 2011). These cases are all too common, and the current crisis
plan does little to address this besides offering 'relocation services'. The closed system of reporting
that is typical in single-loop learning is not adaptable to these types of situations. A Gilpin and
Murphy write, “…this type of learning loop provides negative feedback; it has a stabilizing
influence on the system”(Gilpin, 2008: 74). By extension, this type of learning views crisis as
something that occurs “from the outside and needs to be resolved so the organization can return to
normal’ (ibid.). When the crisis occurs from within the organization, as with many of the sexual
assaults of PC volunteers, this type of learning can be incompatible with victims needs.
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The PC does suggest contact with authorities outside of the PC in some instances (appendix 1). As
an international organization, the PC allows for certain adaptations for different environments.
Within crisis communication, acknowledgement of ‘culture’ and other external factors is limited.
For example, the 2009 crisis plan for sexual assault also encourages women to contact local
attorneys and file reports with the local police. In some cases, this may do more harm than help to
the victim. Another volunteer interviewed about her assault in Bangladesh in 2010 said her attacker
was a “high-ranking official in the provincial branch of the country’s reigning political party.
Going to the local authorities in the aftermath of the assault did not seem a safe option, as I feared
retribution from my attacker” (Lowen, 2011). While this is a step towards a less formalized system
of learning, it is still not compatible for many sexual assault victims.
Pressure to modernize the sexual assault response plan has pushed the PC to take some steps
towards double-loop learning by opening up the resources available to victims to include experts
from outside the PC. In spring of 2011, the PC partnered with a sexual violence organization and
agreed to hire victims’ advocates for assault victims. The PC also agreed to have a victims’ panel
look over the current crisis plan. Finally, the PC recently opened an office devoted solely to sexual
assault, creating a new specialization within the existing organization (Frazee, 2011). It should be
noted that these developments are extremely new and there is no way of knowing how successful
they will be.
Overall, the emphasis on pre-crisis training, bureaucratic reporting system, and assumption that
certain behaviors can ‘cause’ an assault places the PC crisis plan squarely within the single-loop
learning paradigm. Most decisions in a sexual assault are made according to a static hierarchy, with
volunteers at the bottom. Furthermore, the crisis plan’s emphasis on victim behavior shows an
attempt to control sexual assaults by adhering to a set of rules, regardless of external factors such as
country, age of volunteer, etc. By extension, the PC underscores the idea that assaults are caused by
not adhering to these rules by highlighting rule-breaking in their reporting process and training
future volunteers by showing what assaulted volunteers had ‘done wrong’ (Stolberg, 2011).
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4.2.
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Parameter 2 – organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner)
The organizational boundaries indicated within this crisis plan are clearly defined and rational.
Volunteer activities are placed into six sectors: agriculture, business development, education,
environment, health and HIV/AIDS, and youth, which are subdivided to incorporate the following
initiatives into their activities: information and communication technology, women in
development/gender and development, and HIV/ AIDS and youth development. All work sectors
are clearly delineated and maintain their own staffing and budget (appendix 11: 2).
The most flexible part of the PC is the work done with local governments and other non-national
government organizations. However, all major entities from these groups (i.e. decision makers) first
go through a vetting process with the PC and thus become a temporary 'part' of the organization
during their work with the PC volunteers. The PC also trains extraneous volunteers personally to
create local staff. Local staff assists in fundraising, public development, awareness campaigns, etc
and help facilitate the PC goals while in a host country. While organizational boundaries within the
PC are fluid, they remain clearly defined. From PC website, 2009 “Local governments are
considered a temporary part of the organization while working with staff. However, the PC is a
separate entity from the governments it works with“ (appendix 14: 4).
Ultimately, the PC is governed via an internal control program lead by a senior assessment team.
This team “monitors corrective action progress toward completion of the past fiscal year’s
significant deficiencies and audit recommendations through a series of meetings and
correspondence” (appendix 11: 7). Local volunteers are not included in the internal control program
and thus only serve a temporary, extraneous function in the organization.
4.3.
Parameter 3 – predictability of the environment. (Mie Jørgensen)
The following section will be an analysis of the parameter predictability of the environment. As
mentioned in the operationalizing of the parameter, the parameter has is analyzed by the use of the
theory on organizational modes for learning and understanding the environment. In this section the
results of the analysis will be presented. First the overall results will be presented in a table, then
these will be discussed in greater detail, and finally there will be a short discussion of what the
findings mean for the PC’ handling of sexual assaults.
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4.3.1. Results of the analysis (Mie Jørgensen)
As mentioned the empirical data was coded by predefined terms chosen to capture the different
aspects of the two types of organizational mode – bounded rational mode and anarchic mode – in
order to analyze whether the PC has a complex or rational approach to the parameter of
predictability of the environment. The overall results are presented in table 4.2. below. The terms
predictable, structured and generalizable are seen as expressions for the bounded rational mode,
whereas the terms unpredictable, unstructured and not generalizable are expressions for the anarchic
mode.
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Table 4.2.
Parameters
Predictable/unpredictable
environment and future
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Bounded Rational mode
Anarchic mode
81%
19%
81%
19%
Structured/unstructured
interpretation of raw data
Generalizable/ not
generalizable presenting of
100%
knowledge
*the table shows how the division in the word pairs predictable/unpredictable, structured/unstructured and
generalizable/not generalizable, in percentage.
As is seen in table 4.1. the empirical material from the PC’ webpage indicates that their perception
of the environment is most similar to that of the bounded rational mode, where the future is seen as
at least somewhat predictable. An example of this is that the PC by gathering data and analyzing
this has found that “most rapes occur between midnight and 6 a.m. on Saturday night/Sunday
morning. Major sexual assaults are most common between 6 p.m. till midnight over the weekend,
while other sexual assaults are more common during daylight…” (Appendix 1: 4). This clearly
shows that the PC has a very systematic and structured way of gathering data and analyzing it, in
order to learn as much about the environment of the organization and thereby what can be expected
in the future. Another example is that the PC makes an annual report of volunteer safety, in which
they take the raw empirical data concerning all the reported incidents of raped or sexual assaults and
analyze it in a most structured manner, in order to get generalizable information from it.
The data is plotted into tables and charts, which is seen as an attempt to make the most possible
sense of the information gathered, thus it is seen as sense making based on the past. This is very
clearly an expression for the bounded rational mode that is valid for explaining the organizations
perception of the environment, and thereby the rational paradigm that is the foundation for this
aspect of the crisis plan. A problem with this approach is that in order to make the future and the
environment known information needs to be simplified, which means that a lot of the initial
information will be lost, when it has to be suitable for predefined tables. The information is
quantified, and when empirical data is being quantified, information can be lost. This means that
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some of the information that is lying outside of what is to be expected will simply not be analyzed,
and therefore the organization is blind towards it. This selective view of the empirical data allows
the organization to have a clear idea of the environment and the future, but a pitfall to this approach
is that the organization is unable to develop and see new structures.
Still, there are elements indicating that part of the anarchic mode is applied as well. As mentioned,
the anarchic mode does also apply structure in order to make sense of the environment, but it is less
set in stone, hence, there will be changes in how different aspects are examined and categorized.
This is somewhat the case here as well. The quotes “reviewing the implementation of
recommendations made to posts” (Appendix 10: 3) and “Data on physical injury to volunteers is
available only from April, 2008” (Appendix 1: 14), both indicate that there are some changes in
how the PC handles the assaults and that they do reconsider what information they find to be
important for the handling of the case, which means that perhaps the PC is not as static as a classical
rational paradigm organization. Another example is that the PC is well aware that it will never be
possible to eliminate crimes committed against volunteers, but they believe that if volunteers follow
safety guidelines, they can minimize the assaults that do occur (Appendix 5: 4). This indicates that
the PC sees the future as paradoxically unpredictable yet predictable, seeing how they know that the
assaults are going to happen, but not with an accuracy that can prevent them, hence there is some
element of the anarchic mode in how they perceive the environment.
As mentioned in the operationalizing, the two extremes – bounded rational mode and anarchic
mode – are seen as a continuum, and in the case at hand we see that there are parts indicating that
elements of the anarchic mode is incorporated as well. Nonetheless the results of this analysis show
that the PC is a lot closer to the bounded rational approach than the anarchic one, which means that
the paradigm that best explains the parameter of perception of the environment is the rational
paradigm.
The implications this has for the handling of the sexual assaults that might occur can both be
positive and negative. The PC assumes that sexual assaults will happen at a certain time of day,
making it possible to create some behavior guidelines for volunteers. This also means that the PC
can have a crisis plan prepared for handling this situation. In other situations where rapes might
occur, the generalization of knowledge can cause the PC to overlook the incidents. The fact that the
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PC wants to be able to know the future means that they have to simplify it, and thereby they risk
losing important information that can help avoid sexual assault.
4.4.
Parameter 4 - Purpose of the crisis plan for sexual assaults (Mie Jørgensen)
The following section will encompass first a definition of stakeholders and a discussion of who the
primary stakeholders are for the PC, and what this could mean for the outline of the crisis plan.
Second will be an analysis of the empirical material in order to determine what paradigm is the
foundation for the crisis plan.
4.4.1. Primary stakeholders (Mie Jørgensen)
As mentioned in the theory section, both the rational and the complex paradigm sees the main focus
of the crisis plan as restoring the legitimacy of the organization in the eyes of the stakeholders.
Stakeholders are defined as “A person, group, or organization that has direct or indirect stake in an
organization because it can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives,
and policies... Although stakeholding is usually self-legitimizing (those who judge themselves to be
stakeholders are stakeholder ), all stakeholders are not equal and different stakeholders are
entitled to different considerations.” (businessdictionary.com, 2).
As the definition says, not all stakeholders are of equal importance. The PC is a US government
agency that gets their entire budget through US appropriations, making the US government their
primary stakeholder, and by extension the American public (the taxpayers) (appendix 12). The PC
receives just around 400.000.000 from the annual fiscal year budget from the U.S. government
(Appendix 11: 12), which makes the U.S. government the most important stakeholder. This means
that the PC has to live up to government expectations, so it is essential to maintain legitimacy in the
eyes of the US government. Another important stakeholder is the private donors. In 2009, the PC
received well over 10.000 donations, totaling 1.8 mill dollars (Appendix 11: 19).
By extension, the American public is the most important stakeholder as the US government attains
legitimacy through the voting public. The American public both donates money directly and pays
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the PC through taxes (Appendix 12). If legitimacy is lost in the eyes of the US public, the ability to
maintain legitimacy with the US government is low, as the government serves the will of the public.
This means that the crisis plan for dealing with sexual assaults is not victim oriented, as the main
purpose of crisis management in the PC is to restore legitimacy in the eyes of the American public.
Even though the volunteers are stakeholders, they are of less importance than the stakeholders
controlling the PC budget: the US government and by extension the American public. Thus, to
some degree the victims of sexual assaults are object of the crisis, and so the main purpose of the
crisis plan is to make sure that when the incidents occur, external stakeholders need to perceive the
PC as handling the crisis well.
The imbalance of the stakeholders means that the main focus of the crisis plan is not addressing the
issues the victims are facing, but instead addressing the issues of the US government and American
public. This could help explain why victims feel that the crisis of sexual assault is not being
addressed properly. A lack of correlation between the interests of the stakeholders could be one
reason for problems in sexual assault crisis management in the PC. However, the paradigm the
current sexual assault crisis plan falls under makes it resistant to change.
4.4.2. Analysis of the empirical material (Mie Jørgensen)
As mentioned the empirical material concerning sexual assaults was coded according to predefined
terms – singe/double-loop learning and centralized/decentralized information. The overall results of
the coding can be seen in table 4.3. below.
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Table 4.3.
Rational
Complex
Single/double-loop learning
50%
50%
Centralized/decentralized
information
83%
17%
The table shows how often the empirical material was coded as rational or complex according to the predefined coding
terms single/double-loop learning and centralized/decentralized information, the results are shown in percentage, each
wordpair adding up to 100%.
As can be seen in the table, whether the organization conducts single or double-loop learning, the
empirical material indicates that the PC does both to the same degree. An example of the
organization conducting single-loop learning is that they are aware of the fact that the rates of
sexual assaults has risen over the last 10 years, due to their structured methods of gathering data,
but they do not focus on why and what can be done about it (appendix 1). Still they do attempt to
conduct some double-loop learning by rethinking their procedures and cooperating with other
organizations. Nonetheless, there is a problem which could indicate that the organization does not
actually conduct double-loop learning, but only wants to. For example, they do cooperate with other
organizations, but instead of rethinking the entire problem of sexual assaults, they use best practice
from other organizations, which means that they are not actually conducting double-loop learning.
The PC has initiatives that could indicate double learning, but seeing how everything is based on
best practices, then the double-loop learning is probably not really taking place. Another problem
concerning double-loop learning is that when applying a form for gathering data, they focus only on
a specific part of the information they get, the part that fits into predefined boxes. When focusing
only on a specific part of the information received it makes it very hard to conduct double-loop
learning, because material that doesn’t fit into the predefined frames for understanding is screened
out, and thus this information will not lead to double-loop learning. Something could indicate that
this is the case, due to the fact that the PC is very schematic in their presentation of knowledge, so
everything that doesn’t fit is not mentioned.
There are indicators that even though double-loop learning does not occur properly in the
organization, there are still some developments. This is seen when comparing annual safety reports.
The newest report from 2009 includes different aspects then the oldest one from 2004, which could
indicate that learning has occurred. However there is still a long way to double-loop learning, and
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the information is still extremely structured, coming from a small centralized group. The form of
the report on safety has not changed one bit; even the order of the tables is the same. This indicates
that they PC did not engage in double-loop learning, as this requires thinking outside the box
(Appendix 1 and 4).
Even though the table shows that the organization often engages in double-loop learning, it is likely
that this is not actually the case, they are merely attempting double-loop learning without any real
success. This indicates that the purpose of the crisis plan is to return to the status quo as quickly as
possible, because if there is no double-loop learning there is no further evolution. At the same time
it appears they want to make their stakeholders believe that they do conduct double-loop learning
and thereby restore the legitimacy in a more complex manner. The lack of evolution in the crisis
plan indicates this is not the case.
Concerning whether the information is centralized or not, the empirical material overwhelmingly
indicated centralization. A clear example of this is that the security systems in the different
countries have to work in accordance with the guidelines established by the PC, hence there is
information and a plan from the core of the organization that the different departments have to abide
by. The fact that the PC is so clearly centralized could very well lead to the failure of double-loop
learning, as this is not possible in a centralized environment because information is selective.
Again, the centralized information is a clear expression for a rational approach to the crisis plan.
Due to the centralized information the PC can control how to handle different assaults, and thereby
control what the public gets to know, since management decides what information is given to the
stakeholders.
Overall this parameter is seen as being highly rational, with the PC trying to incorporate elements
from the complex paradigm, but not being very successful in their tries due to the high degree of
centralized information.
4.5.
Summary of the results (Lisa Mallner)
The results of the first analysis show that the PC in all the parameters examined has a very rational
approach to the organization and thereby a rational approach to crisis management. There are still
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elements that could indicate that within crisis management the PC applies some elements from the
complex paradigm, but overall the rational paradigm is seen to be the more influential.
So far this tells nothing of whether or not this does in fact create some of the issues with managing
the crisis of sexual assaults. Whether there is a connection between the paradigm and the issues the
women have is examined in the following part of the paper.
5.
Analysis 2 – Does the paradigm the PC adheres to explain the issues the victims are
having with the crisis management? (Lisa Mallner)
This second analysis focuses on whether or not the issues that the victims of sexual assaults are
having with the PC crisis management can be explained by the fact that the PC has a rational
paradigm as the foundation for their crisis management, or if the paradigm professed to makes no
difference to the handling of the crisis. The analysis will entail an analysis of the parameters of
organizational boundaries and organizational learning in order to examine whether the rational
paradigm adhered to within these parameters can explain some of the problems the victims have
with the crisis management of sexual assault. The same will then be done for the next two
parameters of predictability of the environment and the purpose of the crisis plan. The results will t
then be summarized.
5.1.
Analysis of organizational boundaries and how the organization learns (Lisa Mallner)
The following section will entail an analysis of the victim’s responses to certain aspect of the
current and past crisis plan for sexual assault for organizational learning and organizational
boundaries.
5.1.1. Organizational learning (Lisa Mallner)
Organizational learning within the PC falls mostly under single-loop learning, which has caused
some problems for volunteers. First and foremost, the crisis plan focuses on decision making within
a centralized system of information and resources which has been criticized for being insensitive to
volunteers. Volunteers who are sexually assaulted often feel that the PC blames them for the assault
because they made decisions that deviated from the pre-crisis training plan. ABC news reported in
2010 that “The PC often blamed the victims, and forced them to resign after assaults on them
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occurred” (Schecter and Ross, 2011). According to one victim, the PC liaison in Washington told
her she was “…so sick of you girls going out drinking and dancing and then calling it rape when
something happens” (Lowen, 2011). According to the same report, the training video being
currently used to educate women about sexual assaults depicts past assault victims explaining “what
they did wrong” to bring on their attackers. "I wish I had made different choices," says one of the
women (Schecter and Ross, 2011).
One PC volunteer stated that her PC counselor asked her to, “list the things she had done to put
herself in danger, and what she could have done to prevent the rape” and that “the counselor chided
her for being late to the meeting, calling it a sign of her irresponsible nature.” (Ross, 2011)
Another volunteer, when testifying before congress in 2011, said that she was ”made to feel
responsible for being gang raped by a group of men in Bangladesh in 2004 because she had been
walking alone shortly after 5 p.m.”. When the PC took her out of Bangladesh and back to
Washington, D.C., she was told to tell other volunteers that she'd left to have her wisdom teeth
removed (ibid). By perpetuating the idea that acting within the boundaries of a crisis plan can
prevent sexual assault, the single-loop learning espoused in the PC crisis plan harms victims further
by making them feel responsible for attacks. The emphasis on 'mistakes' in volunteer decision
making being the cause of a sexual assault is reflected in the PC Annual Report of Volunteer Safety.
The report highlights the time of day and day of the week each type of sexual assault occurs, and
notes whether or not alcohol was consumed by the victim or the perpetrator (Appendix 1: 3).
Victim-blaming, misinformation, lack of PC staff knowledge, and inadequate sexual assault training
are key themes throughout the experiences of sexually assaulted volunteers. This demonstrates the
pitfalls of single-loop learning in an organization, since reliance on a static model of crisis response
does not account for exogenous factors in a crisis. In the case of the PC, factors such as local culture
or volunteer age and experience are not considered in the crisis response plan. Therefore, the
victims feel that blame for attacks is unfairly placed on them because the crisis plan only accounts
for individual volunteer behavior. As one former volunteer put it, “When bad things happen, you
say to yourself, 'How did I bring this upon myself?' and I think, unfortunately, PC is hoping you'll
think in that direction, too" (Mianecki, 2011). In this case, the inflexible manner of the crisis plan,
which assumes that rapes only occur as a result of certain behaviors, makes victims feel they are
being blamed for their attacks.
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The reporting method used by the PC also has caused issues for volunteers by instituting a singular
method of reporting for all assaults, regardless of factors that might make this difficult. In many
cases, the perpetrator is a member of the PC themselves, or someone the volunteer must work
closely with. For example, the perpetrator can be a member of the volunteer’s host family, a local
government official, or a fellow volunteer. Many of the victims do not feel safe reporting what
happened to them, or feel that the reports are irrelevant to their safety. For example, a rape took
place only a few hours after the victim had filed another of many reports to the PC safety official,
and her attackers were aware of the report. "Every day we felt unsafe. And we reported everything,
we just kept reporting," she said in an interview (Carollo and Hopgood, 2011). The single-loop
approach to reporting, which maintains a singular reporting method for all cases of harassment and
assault, is thus inadequate in these cases. The organization has not updated this method despite
complaints, another indication of single-loop learning.
Furthermore, many volunteers complained the bureaucratic red tape involved in reporting assaults
was so frustrating they chose not to report at all. "It was too hard to navigate by myself and so I just
gave up," said one volunteer (Stolberg, 2011). A 2010 survey of PC volunteers revealed that nearly
40 percent of those raped and 50 percent of those sexually assaulted did not report their attacks
(Ross, 2011). As a result of the difficulties in reporting, the number of annual assaults is likely
much higher. Again, the PC’s highly structured method of reporting has remained the same through
the years, which is an indication of single-loop learning as the formulaic view taken of sexual
assaults leave no room for new reporting methods to evolve.
Post assault, many volunteers complain that they are inadequately advised on how to prosecute their
attackers, even if reports are filed properly, and that they do not get proper counseling after an
attack. Bureaucratic tape appears in all stages of the crisis management. As one victim said, "My
final straw was when my PC country director said to me, 'It's your word against his. He said you
wanted to have sex, and we believe him”( (Edwards, 2011). She was dissuaded from getting proper
treatment as a result of her country director’s disbelief.
The PC has only recently taken some steps to improve this aspect of the crisis plan. Previously,
there were no specialists in sexual assault in the PC. Decision making was done according to the
available crisis plan, which was limited. Currently the PC has recently appointed a victim's
advocate who would coordinate support services and is collaborating with the Rape, Abuse and
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Incest National Network, an anti-sexual violence organization, to improve understanding of proper
victim treatment (Frazee, 2010). These are steps away from the predominantly single-loop learning.
Bringing outside specialists and creating permanent positions dedicated to sexual assault within the
PC fall under double-loop learning. These developments have all occurred in the last few months
and it is not certain if these double-loop steps will alter the single-loop crisis plan significantly.
By creating detailed procedurals for crisis response, attempting to control aspects of the crisis
through volunteer decision making following the procedural, and having subordinates relinquish
decisions to superiors with no special knowledge of sexual assault, the single-loop learning of the
PC is at risk of hurting victims further.
5.1.2. Organizational boundaries (Lisa Mallner)
As shown in analysis 1, the boundaries of the organization are highly rational and clearly defined.
The analysis showed that the problems the victim have with the crisis management was not due to
the rational approach to organizational boundaries.
The crisis plan did not have any issues with organizational boundaries. Although victims
complained about bureaucratic red tape, organizational boundaries being clearly defined seemed to
be advantageous over fluid boundaries as there was never a question over proper parties to contact
in the case of assault. Victims may have found the management non-responsive but did not have an
issue knowing who to contact. Furthermore, the addition of an office devoted solely to sexual
assault and the hiring victims’ advocates gives assaulted volunteers new avenues within the
organization to contact in the case of an assault. The greatest issue seems to be to make the PC more
responsive and responsible for victim’s needs. Thus, there does not seem to be any need to greatly
redefine the organizational boundaries within the PC.
5.2.
Analysis of issues concerning predictability of the environment and the purpose of the
crisis plan (Mie Jørgensen)
The results from the first analysis showed that the PC was mainly rational when it came to the
parameter of predictability of the environment, as it was seen that the PC had a very structured way
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of interpreting raw data, which lead them see the environment and thus the future as largely
predictable. Concerning the purpose of the crisis plan the PC is mainly rational, as there is a failure
to apply double-loop learning. This part of the analysis focuses on whether this rational approach is
seen as causing problems for how the women feel the sexual assaults are being handled, or if it had
been the same had the approach been complex instead.
The interviews given by the women have been analyzed, in order to find the passages where they
address issues that could arise due to the perception of predictability of the environment and the
purpose of the crisis plan.
5.2.1. Predictability of the environment (Mie Jørgensen)
The PC perception of the environment creates problems for the victims within the different aspects
of the parameter. The analysis will therefore be divided into the issues occurring within the two
coding terms from analysis one – 1) structured interpretation of data and 2) the predictability of the
environment and the future. The last coding set, generalized knowledge, will not be analyzed
independently. It is covered in the structured interpretation of the data.
5.2.1.1.
Structured interpretation of raw data
One problem that the victims experiences concerning the structured interpretation of raw data was
that was that they did not feel the PC heard their pleas for help when they felt they were in danger.
One example of this is a women who tells that she repeatedly told the PC officials that she was
threatened by young men in her neighborhood (interview 1, 2:47), but despite this the PC did not
relocate, which ended up in her being raped. Instead the PC told her not to walk alone and not to go
out at night. This indicates that the PC had a very structured way of interpreting the information
they got from her. They compared it to the information they had on when the volunteers were
sexually assaulted and because she felt threatened during the day they did not react upon it. Because
her information did not add up with the information they already had on sexual assaults they did not
believe she was in any real danger. If the PC instead had had a more complex approach to crisis
management, they would have been aware that the future cannot be foretold, and they would not
have interpreted the information as rigid as they did, which could have helped prevent the situation.
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5.2.1.2.
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Predictable environment and future
One problem that occurs from the PC perception of a predictable future all of the victims
experienced was that they felt the PC told them that it was their own fault that they were victims of
sexual assaults. Several of the women say they feel like the PC blamed them and told them that they
had been out to late, had been drinking alcohol or simply that they had risky personalities
(interview 1: 6.55, and interview 2 1:50 and interview 3: 0.20). This correlates well with the fact
that the PC in their annual safety report describe that rapes and sexual assaults happen at night on
weekends ad that the victims have often consumed alcohol (Appendix 1: 4). Their perception of a
predictable future leads them to victim-blaming. In this view, if you do as told, you will not be
hurt, so if you are sexually assaulted it is your fault for not following protocol. The protocol is in
place because the future and environment are known, hence avoidance of assault can be systemized.
The rational paradigm leads them to telling the victims that they brought this upon themselves,
because they did not stick to the safety guidelines (interview 5: 6.00).
5.2.2. Purpose of the crisis plan (Mie Jørgensen)
The following section of the analysis focuses on the problems that occur within the purpose of the
crisis plan. Again the analysis is divided upon the terms applied in analysis 1, so the issues
concerning 1) lack of double-loop learning and 2) the problems with centralized information.
5.2.2.1.
Centralized information
There are several incidents that indicate that the information within the PC is very centralized, and
that information about sexual assaults cannot be spread throughout the organization, something that
allows the PC to control the information about sexual assaults, which makes it easier for them to
control the crisis management, and return to status quo as fast as possible. Several of the women
were told to keep quiet about their experiences (interview 1: 4.20), which clearly shows that the PC
is trying to control the information concerning the rapes, so the information they do tell people
about the incident comes from the management.
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5.2.2.2.
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Single-loop learning
The lack of decentralized information also has an effect on the learning abilities of the organization,
because if the only information in the organization is top-down, then the environment emphasizes
single-loop learning.
Another issue that arises due to the single-loop learning that is taking place in the PC is that is does
not seem like the PC has changed over the last 20 years. One women interviewed was that raped 20
years ago as a volunteer, and the PC told her that it was her own fault and that she had been drunk,
so she put herself in the situation (interview 4: 2.30), a reply much similar to the one some of the
victims from more recent cases got (interview 1), so this indicates that the PC handles sexual
assaults like they did 20 years ago, demonstrating the organization has not developed and no
double-loop learning is took place.
Overall it seems like the main purpose of the sexual assault response plan is not to help the victims
of sexual assaults, but instead focus is on restoring the legitimacy in the eyes of the American
public as fast as possible, and this is best done by not telling about the sexual assaults and blaming
victims instead of looking at what the organization could have done differently. This short term
focus of the crisis management is most definitely seen as a problem for the victims. Had the
approach been more like the complex paradigm, there is a good chance that some of these problems
would have been solved through the use of double-loop learning.
5.3.
Summary of the results (Lisa Mallner)
The results of the second analysis have showed that the rational paradigm that is the foundation for
crisis management does in fact lead to several of the issues that the victims of sexual assaults are
facing. The rational approach to the three parameters, organizational learning, predictability of the
environment and purpose of the crisis plan, all have a direct impact on the problem the women have
with the crisis management. The fourth parameter, organizational boundaries, does not seem to
negatively affect crisis response for victims. Nonetheless, that fact that three out of four rational
parameters are causing the PC to act wrongly according to victims is critical as it demonstrates that
some of these issues are a direct effect of the rational approach to crisis management.
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6.
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Complex suggestions for Crisis management (Lisa Mallner)
Many of the women interviewed for the ABC News 20/20 investigation said the PC needs to
provide more than the limited counseling they received after they were attacked, and cut the
bureaucratic red tape to get further treatment (Ross, 2011). Some complexity based responses have
already been undertaken to help abet these issues. The PC has taken steps to bring in counselors
who are experts in sexual assault to help out victims, and opened an office devoted solely to sexual
assault. It is too early to tell how this will affect victims, but the addition of experts in assault
response as permanent members of the PC can only have positive affects for victims.
A former volunteer who was assaulted and is now a clinical psychologist has expanded on steps that
could be taken post crisis, explaining that “aid that victims received within 24 hours of the incident
was crucial to long-term mental health” She also recommended that, “the PC employ mobile
victim's advocates who can travel quickly to sites to help victims through the process of medical
exams, police reports and initial counseling.” (Schecter and Ross, 2011) The addition of mobile
expertise certainly falls under a more CP based response. Other complexity suggestions were
presented at the recent legislative hearing and included providing travel companions for flights back
to the U.S. and creating an official victim's advocate for every region the PC serves (Ibid).
Generalization of Results (Lisa Mallner)
The inclusion of complexity based, double-loop learning in sexual assault crisis response is
applicable to organizations that share some similarities with the PC. University campuses, for
example, share with the PC high risk groups of students (young women), dynamic environments,
and limited resources for assault prevention and care. The Center for Global Education, a nonprofit
promoting international education, has already recommended an adaptation of the current PC crisis
plan for student’s abroad (globaled.us).
The findings can also be generalized to other humanitarian organizations sending young volunteers
overseas to countries where they have limited knowledge of local culture and work closely with
locals. In any case, in an organization sending a high risk group for sexual assault into
environments with dubious safety and communication, it is necessary to have a crisis response plan
in te event that rapes or sexual assaults occur.
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7.
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
Conclusion (Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen)
The paper set out to identify what affects the PC crisis management in the case of sexual assaults.
Recently several females PC volunteers who had been sexually assaulted gave an interview to ABC
News telling how they felt the PC had failed them, and so the paper wanted to identify what could
cause this failure in crisis management.
This was done by applying the theory of Gilpin and Murphy that says that management in a
company is founded on either a rational or a complex paradigm, and this will of course affect the
crisis management. Therefore the aim of the paper was to identify which paradigm was the
foundation for the crisis management, and second to identify if the problem the victims were having
with the crisis management could in fact be explained by the paradigm.
The first part of the analysis focused on what paradigm could best explain the crisis management,
and analyzed four parameters that were all seen to be relevant in the attempt to place the paradigm
of the PC as rational or complex. The four parameters were organizational learning, organizational
boundaries, predictability of the environment and purpose of the crisis plan. All four parameters
showed that the PC has a highly rational approach to crisis management. The organization is very
hierarchical and clearly defined, applies single-loop learning, and believes that the environment is
predictable. Information concerning sexual assaults is very centralized and comes from the
management. The PC does try to incorporate complex elements, amongst other things they try to
conduct double-loop learning, but unfortunately they do not succeed in this, mainly due to the
centralized nature of the PC.
The second part of the analysis focused on whether the rational paradigm can in fact explain why
the victims of sexual assaults felt the PC failed them in their crisis management. For three out of
the four parameters it was found that the rational approach did in fact cause the victims to feel that
the PC failed them. The rational approach to learning meant that the PC has handled the sexual
assaults in the same way for the last 20 years without any improvement. The predictability of the
environment caused them to blame the victims for being raped, because the PC believes they know
when rapes happen, so if the women do as the PC has told them, nothing will happen to them, so if
they are raped anyway, then they did something wrong. The purpose of the crisis plan lead them to
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tell the victims not to tell what happened, in order to be able to restore legitimacy towards their
stakeholders as fast as possible. The last parameter, the rational approach to organizational
boundaries was not seen to cause any problems in crisis management, as the victims did not
experience any issues that could be related to this parameter. The rational boundaries of the PC
were not a problem in sexual assault crisis management.
Overall the analysis has shown that the PC’s crisis management is written in the rational paradigm
and this rational approach to crisis management leads the PC to fail its female volunteers when they
are sexually assaulted.
7.1.
Discussion/ putting the results into perspective
PC volunteers, many of whom are young women, are put in danger by some of the fundamental
aspects of the PC crisis plan, which has remained largely unchanged despite criticism. Many
volunteers have limited experience abroad and selective background on their assigned jobs,
including minimal exposure to local culture and lack of language skills. They live in some of the
remotest areas of the world and in some of the most dangerous countries, often without supervision,
for months or years at a time.
Despite criticism, the PC sexual assault response has changed very little. One former volunteer
expressed dismay that “it was still like the 70's” (Schecter, 2011, 2). However, the crisis plan seems
as though it will undergo some serious changes. The PC sexual assault response came under fire
recently when a 2010 ABC news re
port gathered survivors to recount their experiences. Further criticism and media attention came
when a former sexual assault victim founded a support group called First response Action that
publically expressed dismay at being failed by an organization dedicated to helping others. An
online petition circulating on Change.org, asking for renewed anti-sexual violence legislation for
the PC, gathered over 4,000 signatures (Change.org, 2011). This criticism has prompted legislative
hearings in congress in regards to the PC sexual assault response. PC director Aaron S. Williams
made a statement on Wednesday, May 11, agreeing that the Peace Corps needs to respond better to
sexual violence against Volunteers (DiBranco, 2011). According to reports,”…The women say Mr.
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William’s efforts, while promising, are not enough. They want Congress to pass legislation
requiring, among other things, that the Peace Corps develop “sexual assault response teams” to
collect forensic evidence and provide emergency health care and advocacy for victims after attacks.
Mr. Williams said he was open to such legislation but has not committed to supporting it”
(DiBranco, 2011). The congressional hearings are a step towards much needed reform. One former
victim who testified in congress stated her vision succinctly: “I want those women to be treated with
compassion and respect. They should be heard, supported and healed, not blamed, reprimanded or
ignored." (MSNBC, 2011) It remains to be seen if these initiatives will be successful in improving
the sexual assault crisis response in the PC; it will be interesting to examine this subject again in a
few years.
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8. Bibliography
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INTERNET RESOURCES
Globeled.com. ”SAFETI adaptation of Peace Corps resources: Rape resonse handbook”, retrieved
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http://globaled.us/peacecorps/rapecontent.html#1A
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1. Definition of an organization (retrieved May 26, 2011)
http://www.businessdictionary.com/defintion/organization.html
2. Definition of stakeholder (retrieved May 24, 2011)
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/stakeholder.html
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Edwards, David. ”Raped Peace Corps Volunteer forced to have an abortion or quit”.
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Lowen, Linda. “Rape, Sexual Assault of Women in the Peace Corps: Are Women Safe?”.
About.com: Women's Issues. Jan 28, 2011.
http://womensissues.about.com/od/rapesexualassault/a/Women-Peace-Corps-Rape-SexualAssault_2.htm
Mianecki, Julie. “Peace Corps Volunteers Tell Lawmakers of Sexual Assault”. LA Times, May 11
2011 http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/11/nation/la-na-peace-corps-20110512/2
MSNBC. ”Volunteers: Peace Corps insensitive to rapes. 5/11/2011.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42988397/ns/us_news-life/t/volunteers-peace-corps-insensitiverapes/
Schecter, Anna
1. ”Harvard Expert Hearing Witness Interviews with ABC about Sexual Violence in Peace Corps”. ABC
News, May 9 2011. http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/brian-ross-investigates-peace-corps-sex-scandalosamas/story?id=13589978
2. ”Congress to Investigate Peace Corps Treatment of Sex Assault Victims”. ABC News The Blotter,
ABCNews.go.com. 27 January 2011.http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/peace-corps-congressinvestigate-peace-corps-treatment-sex/story?id=12777476&page=1
Schecter, Anna, and Ross, Brian. ”Peace Corps Gang Rape: Volunteer Says U.S. Agency Ignored
Warnings”. ABC News 2020, Jan. 12, 2011.
http://womensissues.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=womensissues&cdn=newsissues&t
m=223&f=20&tt=2&bt=0&bts=1&st=38&zu=http%3A//abcnews.go.com/Blotter/peace-corpsgang-rape-volunteer-jess-smochek-us/story%3Fid%3D12599341%26page%3D1
Stolberg, Sheryl Gay. ”Ex Peace Corps Volunteers Speak Out on Rape”. NY Times (online
edition). May 10, 2011. available at http://firstresponseaction.blogspot.com/2011/05/harvardexpert-hearing-witness.html
BLOGS
Frazee, Casey. First Response Action blog. Last updated Thurs, May 12, 2011.
http://firstresponseaction.blogspot.com/
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8th Semester project
Lisa Mallner and Mie Jørgensen
”Steps Peace Corps Has Taken to Improve Support to Victims of Crime”. Tues April 19, 2011.
(posted by Casey Frazee). Retrieved from http://firstresponseaction.blogspot.com/2011/04/stepspeace-corps-has-taken-to-improve.html
PETITION
”Protect Peace Corps Volunteers: Back Anti-Sexual Violence Legislation.” Online Petition.
Change.org, 2011 http://www.change.org/petitions/protect-peace-corps-volunteers-back-antisexual-violence-legislation
ABC INTERVIEWS
Brian Ross, 2011 for ABC news
interview 1: http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/video/peace-corps-gang-rape-12614009 (25.05.2011)
Interview 2: http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/video/peace-corps-assaults-women-sexual-crime-rapelaw-12624367(25.05.2011)
Interview 3: http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/peace-corps-rape-victim-jess-smochek-honoredcongress/story?id=13308796(25.05.2011)
Interview 4: http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/raped-peace-corpsvolunteer/story?id=13537674(25.05.2011)
Interview 5: http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/video/blaming-victim-13593596(25.05.2011)
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