Chapter One
An Introduction to Rhetoric: Using the “Available Means”
THE LANGUAGE OF
COMPOSITION
Reading, Writing, Rhetoric
What is Rhetoric?
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Defined by Aristotle as “the faculty of observing
in any given case the available means of
persuasion.”
Leads to effective communication
 And it’s important because…
 use the “available means,” acquire a position of
strength
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Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetoric can be studied in relation to both spoken
and written words
July 4, 1939 – Lou Gehrig delivers a
speech to baseball fans
** Alt version of audio
Key Elements – Context / Purpose
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What is context?
What was Gehrig’s context?
- between double header
- contrast between celebration and “bad break”
What was his purpose?
- remain positive
- is straightforward, honest, focused
Other general purposes?
Beware of contextual bias
Key Elements – Thesis / Speaker
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Claim, Assertion, Thesis: clear and focused
Gehrig: “luckiest man on the face of the earth”
Subject: baseball! Gehrig knows it well
Speaker: common man, baseball player, modest,
courageous, not orator… he explicitly showed these
traits of himself
All of theses elements combined to make Gehrig’s
speech one of the most famous of the early 20th
century
Rhetorical / Aristotelian Triangle
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Shows interaction
Interaction determines structure and language of
“argument”
Speaker
Audience
Subject
Rhetorical / Aristotelian Triangle
Subject: topic, background, evidence
 Speaker: sometimes author, sometimes persona
 Persona examples: student, concerned citizen,
activist, expert, etc.
 Audience: knowledge? attitude? bias?
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How do these interactions affect the argument?
Rhetorical Appeals - Ethos
Ethos is the appeal to the character of the
speaker, to demonstrate that they are credible
and trustworthy
 Sometimes reputation is enough
 Sometimes tone is enough
 Often an appeal to ethos is found explicitly
within the argument
 Ethos gives the audience a reason for listening
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Rhetorical Appeals - Logos
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Logos is an appeal to reason (logic) by offering
clear, rational ideas
Achieved through clear thesis with specific and
sufficient support
Based on an assumption or underlying belief
(Gehrig example: Bad breaks are natural and
inevitable)
Logos includes counterargument: concession and
refutation
Rhetorical Appeals - Pathos
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Pathos is the appeal to emotions of the audience
Not often effective by itself
Accomplished through choice of language, personal
anecdotes… whatever engages emotions of
audience
Language = connotation
Visuals can add to pathos
Propaganda – relies almost wholly on pathos…
unique situation because of audience
Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
Read aloud:
Article “We Can Afford to Give
Parents a Break” on Page 6-8
Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
Ethos
“Our government” – she is part of it, she is
critical on behalf of audience
 Her credentials as researcher
 Location (context) of publication/audience
establishes ethos
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Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
Logos
Her frame as an economic issue is appeal to
logic
Uses cause/effect examples
Addresses the opposition – “myths”
Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
Pathos
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Occasion of Mother’s Day– even though she
doesn’t ID herself as a mother
Synthesizing our learning…
If time allows: Article on Twitter, in pairs
Collected Homework: Assignment, pg 9
(Albert Einstein letter) – follow instructions
in book.
Visual Rhetoric
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Elements of Rhetoric can also be applied to visual
texts
Political cartoons, advertisements, visual aids
Sometimes satirical, not always
Rosa Parks cartoon, pg 11: subject, speaker,
audience, context, purpose, ethos, pathos, logos
Rhetoric from Literature
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Literature is also persuasive
Example: Julius Caesar speech
How does Antony appeal to ethos, pathos and
logos??
Arrangement
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Organization of a piece is also part of rhetoric
Beginning, middle, end - - intro, body, conclusion
Arrangement depends on purpose and intended
effect
Not always conscious, but should be considered
Classical Model
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction – Any number of paragraphs. Piques
interest in some way. Establish ethos.
Narration – Factual and background material.
Establishes the “why.” Appeal to logos OR pathos.
Confirmation – Development of proof. Examples.
Appeal to logos.
Refutation – Addresses counterargument. Can appear
anywhere within argument. Appeal to logos.
Conclusion – Answers the question “so what?” Brings it
all together. Appeal to pathos and ethos (reminder)
Patterns of Development
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Arrangement according to purpose
Author’s purpose suggests a particular method of
arrangement
Organize an entire text, or paragraphs within one
Narration
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Telling a story or recounting events
Based on personal experience or observation
Usually chronological, detailed
Has a point of view and sometimes dialogue
Think of it as crafting a story… that supports your
thesis!
Often used as a way to introduce topics
Description
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Often with narration
Emphasis on details, not story
Establish a mood or atmosphere
Not used alone… ineffective
Vivid description can make your writing more
persuasive
Examples: Ehrenreich and Orwell
Process Analysis
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Explains how something works, how to do something,
or how it was done
Clarity
Logical, chronological, thorough
Ex. Writing about a scientific experiment or survey.
In Psych, papers start with methodology
Exemplification
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Providing a series of examples: facts, specifics
Makes argument clearer and more persuasive
Inductive reasoning: a series of examples leads to a
conclusion
A few very thorough examples can be just as
convincing as several brief ones
Comparison and Contrast
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Juxtaposing two things to highlight similarities and
difference
Use to analyze information, to reveal insights
Some AP prompts are like this! Analyze differences
in style
Subject by subject: discuss all elements of one, then
the other ORRRR
Point by point: organized around specific ideas of
comparison
Classification and Division
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Sorting material into major categories
Writer’s task is to develop own categories, find a
way to break it down into parts
Example: Amy Tan’s “Englishes” classification
Definition
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Lay common ground in an essay
Ex: define “successful” if that’s what your essay is
addressing
Can be a simple paragraph, or the point of an
entire paper
Ex: essay defining family
Cause and Effect
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Be wary of establishing factual causes: not every
“cause” directly causes an effect (logic flaws)
Patterns of Development
Assignment: pg. 26 – examine
arrangement / patterns of
development in “We Can Afford to
Give Parents a Break”
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