The neural basis
of self-knowledge
Arnaud D’Argembeau
University of Liège, Belgium
Workshop on Social Neuroscience
Gent, 27 June 2013
γνῶθι σεαυτόν
(« Know thyself »)
Outline
1.
2.
What is the self?
Neural basis of self-knowledge
– Semantic self-knowledge
– Episodic self-knowledge
3.
4.
5.
6.
Default mode network
What is the role of the MPFC?
Self-enhancement
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
What do we mean by “self”?
Self
Semantic
self-representations
Self-as-subject
• “I” (James)
• Core self (Damasio)
• Minimal self (Gallagher)
•…
Self-as-object
• “me” (James)
• Autobiographical self
(Damasio)
Episodic
• Narrative self (Gallagher)
self-representations
•…
What do we mean by “self”?
• Semantic self-knowledge: a set of abstract representations of one’s
personal attributes (e.g., traits, preferences, abilities, goals, social roles)
• Episodic self-knowledge: the ability to mentally relive past experiences
and to project oneself into possible futures (“mental time travel”)
• These two forms of self-knowledge are dissociable
– Patients with amnesia (e.g., Klein et al., 2002)
– Priming experiments in healthy individuals (e.g., Klein & Loftus, 1993)
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Thinking about one’s traits
Kelley et al. (2002) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Johnson et al. (2002). Brain
• Self‐evaluation in the domains of mood, social
interactions, cognitive and physical abilities (e.g., “I
get angry easily”, “I often forget things”)
• Decisions about statements of factual knowledge
(e.g., “you need water to live”)
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Meta-analyses of trait judgments about the self
17 PET or fMRI studies
25 PET or fMRI studies
Van der Meer et al. (2010) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
Murray et al. (2012) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
MPFC activity correlates with degrees of self-descriptiveness
Moran et al. (2006) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
What do others think about me?
You are
According to
David, he is
sociable
You are
According to David, you are
You are
clumsy
sociable
clumsy
David
is
sociable
You are
clumsy
Yousociable
are
clumsy
D’Argembeau et al. (2007) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
MPFC subserves diverse forms of self-reflection
Jenkins & Mitchell (2011), Social Neuroscience
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Ruby et al. (2009) Neurobiology of Aging
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
MPFC damage abolishes the self-reference effect
Task: traits judgments
• Self (‘does this trait describe you?’)
• Other (‘does this trait describe Oprah Winfrey?’)
• Case (‘is the trait capitalized?’)
Recognition memory task => SRE (hits self – hits other)
Philippi et al. (2012) J cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Preserved self-concept in patient R:
•
•
•
•
Self-consciousness scale revised
Positivity bias
Big Five inventory (consistency over time)
Metacognition and introspective abilities
BUT self-conceptions are rather rigid and
not fully updated
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of semantic self-knowledge
Role of the MPFC in semantic self-knowledge
• The MPFC is more active when thinking about one’s traits compared to the
traits of others
• When thinking about one’s traits, the degree of MPFC activity correlates
with the self-descriptiveness of the traits
• The MPFC is active when processing different kinds of semantic selfknowledge (e.g., traits, physical abilities, how we are seen by others)
• Damage to the MPFC impairs some aspects of semantic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Mental time travel
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Amnesia: The case of K. C. (Tulving, 1985)
Tulving: “What will you be doing tomorrow?”
(There is a 15-second pause)
K.C.: smiles faintly, then says, “I don’t know”
Tulving: “Do you remember the question?”
K.C.: “About what I’ll be doing tomorrow?”
Tulving: “Yes. How would you describe your state of mind when you try
to think about it?”
(A 5-second pause)
K.C.: “Blank, I guess”
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Developmental research
Episodic memory and future thinking emerge at the same time, between 3
and 5 years of age
Suddendorf & Busby (2005)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Phenomenological characteristics
7
7
6
6
5
Past events
4
Future events
3
2
1
Ratings for sensory details
Ratings for sensory details
Experimental manipulations of valence and temporal distance have similar
effects on past and future event representations
5
Past events
4
Future events
3
2
1
Near
Far
Temporal distance
Positive
Negative
Affective valence
D’Argembeau & Van der Linden (2004) Consciousness & Cognition
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Typical task: remembering/imagining specific events (i.e., unique events that
occur in a specific place and time) in response to cue words (e.g., beach)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Meta-analysis of autobiographical memory studies
Svoboda et al. (2006) Neuropsychologia
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Remembering past events and imagining future events rely on common neural substrates
Addis et al. (2007) Neuropsychologia
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Szpunar et al. (2007) PNAS
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Cabeza & St Jacques (2007)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Neural correlates of imagining self-relevant future events
 Personally-relevant future events: future events related to personal goals
(Personal Projects Inventory; Little, 1983; e.g. getting married next summer)
 Non-personally-relevant future events: future events that are plausible but
not part of personal goals (e.g. going to the zoo next summer)
 Routine activities (e.g. taking a shower)
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
fMRI session
Personal future
Max.
5s
Identify the event
Getting married next summer
Imagine the event (with eyes closed)
15 s
Eyes closed
jitter (4 - 12 s)
+
Daily routine
Taking a shower
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Personally-relevant future events > routine activities
Non-personally-relevant future events > routine activities
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
Personally-relevant future events > non-personally-relevant future events
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Neural correlates of episodic self-knowledge
x = -4
y = 56
Imagining personally-relevant future events
Thinking about one’s traits
Overlap
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
Interim conclusion
• Semantic self-knowledge
– The MPFC is the brain area that is most commonly activated in fMRI
studies
– Damage to the MPFC is associated with some impairments in selfrepresentation
• Episodic self-knowledge
– Involve multiple brain regions
– MPFC is associated with self-relevance
=> Although semantic and episodic forms of self-knowledge are
dissociable, they both involve the MPFC
DMN and self-related thought
The MPFC typically shows decreased activity relative to baseline
Kelley et al. (2002) J Cogn Neurosci
Moran et al. (2006) J Cogn Neurosci
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) J Cogn Neurosci
DMN and self-related thought
Default mode network
Gusnard & Raichle (2001) Nature Reviews Neuroscience
DMN and self-related thought
What is going on during the “resting state”?
–
–
–
–
Daydreaming, mind-wandering
Remembering the past, imagining the future
Attending to bodily sensations and external stimuli
…
DMN and self-related thought
PET study
• Resting state
• Explicit self-reflection
• Thinking about others
• Thinking about social issues
Conjunction analysis between resting state and self-reflection
In the four conditions, no stimuli were presented and
no motor response was required during the scans
(Self – Other) AND (Rest – Society)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Self-referential thoughts
Correlation with amount of self-referential thoughts
Self Other Social Rest
D’Argembeau et al. (2005) NeuroImage
DMN and self-related thought
Mind-wandering and self-related thought
Stawarczyk, Majerus, Van der Linden, & D’Argembeau (2011) PLoS ONE
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Not self-specific
– Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)
– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)
– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
What is the function of the MPFC?
Is the involvement of MPFC self-specific?
Thinking about one’s traits vs. traits of other people
Legrand & Ruby (2009) Psychological Bulletin
BUT mixing of different aspects of self (trait judgments,
sense of agency, recognition of one’s own face, name, etc.)
What is the function of the MPFC?
Is the involvement of MPFC self-specific?
Thinking about one’s traits vs. traits of other people
Van der Meer et al. (2010) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
Murray et al. (2012) Neurosci Biobehav Rev
What is the function of the MPFC?
Review of the social neuroscience literature (Lieberman, 2010)
• Mentalizing: MPFC is activated in 33% of studies; dorsal MPFC is
activated in 91% of studies
• Self-knowledge: MPFC is activated in 94% of studies; dorsal MPFC is
activated in 53% of studies
What is the function of the MPFC?
Van Overwalle (2009), HBM
What is the function of the MPFC?
What about close others?
Heatherton et al. (2006), SCAN
Vanderwal et al. (2008), NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Close others are often treated as “part of the self” (e.g., Aaron et al.,
2004)
• Perhaps the difference in MPFC activity for self vs. close others depends
on the degree to which the other is included in one’s sense of self
What is the function of the MPFC?
Cultural differences
Self > non-close other
Self > mother
Zhu et al. (2007) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
MPFC activity for self vs. other correlates with the degree
of self-other overlap (as assessed by the correlation between selfjudgments and judgments about one’s best friend)
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
Activity in the MPFC at study correlates with subsequent memory performance
Benoit et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Not self-specific
– Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)
– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)
– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
What is the function of the MPFC?
Does the MPFC subserve memory retrieval and evaluation processes?
•
Cognitive operations involved in trait self-judgments according to Legrand & Ruby
(2009)
– Consideration of the question (does the trait apply to you?)
– Perception and integration of the stimulus (e.g., shyness)
– Recall of relevant situations (e.g., I blushed the last time John said something embarrassing to
me, even thought I usually do not blush easily)
– Comparison or association of these recalled events with each other, which leads to a
– Generalization or the formulation of probalistic rule (e.g., most of the time I am confident and
do not blush in embarrassing situations), and
– Application of the rule, which allows a conclusion to be drawn (e.g., I am not shy)
• BUT
– Trait judgments do not involve the recall of past events (cf. studies by Klein and
colleagues)
– Typically, trait judgments are made within 2 seconds, whereas the recall of past events
takes 3-10 seconds
What is the function of the MPFC?
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
Passive viewing of words
• Self-related (e.g., hometown, initials; n = 50,
white font)
• Neutral (n = 400, non-self-related words in
white font)
• Perceptual oddball (n = 50, non-self-related
words in green font)
Moran et al. (2009), Social Neuroscience
What is the function of the MPFC?
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
• 2 groups of participants based on their self-schema (athletic vs. scientific)
• Implicit self-relevance task: viewing pictures related to athletism and science and judging whether contain people
• Explicit self-relevance task: viewing adjectives related to athletism and science and judging whether they describe
the self
Explicit processing of schemarelevant information
Implicit processing of schemarelevant information
Rameson et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
Does MPFC subserve evaluation processes?
• 2 groups of participants based on their self-schema (athletic vs. scientific)
• Implicit self-relevance task: viewing pictures related to athletism and science and judging whether contain people
• Explicit self-relevance task: viewing adjectives related to athletism and science and judging whether they describe
the self
Neural overlap during explicit and implicit self-relevant processing
Rameson et al. (2010) NeuroImage
What is the function of the MPFC?
• Not self-specific
– Familiarity (Gilihan & Farah, 2005)
– Memory retrieval and evaluation processes (Legrand & Ruby, 2009)
– Meta-cognition, introspection, and mentalizing (e.g., Amodio & Frith,
2006)
• Appraising and coding self-relatedness or self-relevance (e.g.,
Northoff & Bermpohl, 2004; Schmitz & Johnson, 2007; D’Argembeau &
Salmon, 2012)
What is the function of the MPFC?
William James
“One great splitting of the whole universe into two halves is
made by each of us; and for each of us almost all of the
interest attaches to one of the halves; but we all draw
the line of division between them in a different place.
When I say that we all call the two halves by the same
names, and that those names are ‘me’ and ‘not-me’
respectively, it will at once be seen what I mean. The
altogether unique kind of interest which each human mind
feels in those parts of creation which it can call me or mine
may be a moral riddle, but it is a fundamental psychological
fact. No mind can take the same interest in his neighbor’s
me as in his own.” (The principles of psychology, 1890, p.
289).
Value signals in the MPFC
Food
Hare et al. (2009)
Money
Kable & Glimcher (2007)
Attractive faces
O’Doherty et al. (2003)
Charitable decisions
Hare et al. (2010)
MPFC activity when people think about themselves could reflect the value they attach
to the particular conception of themselves that is activated at a given moment
Increasing psychological distance to selves
• People tend to devalue distant past and future selves, such that they are
regarded as “others” (e.g., Pronin et al., 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003)
Increasing psychological distance to selves
• People tend to devalue distant past and future selves, such that they are
regarded as “others” (e.g., Pronin et al., 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003)
• If MPFC is involved in valuing the self, then MPFC activity should be
reduced when thinking about distant selves
Increasing psychological distance to selves
Positive trait
sociable
Five years ago, David was
sociable
At present, David is
sociable
3.5 s
Five years ago, I was
sociable
At present, I am
sociable
D’Argembeau et al. (2008) SCAN
Increasing psychological distance to selves
D’Argembeau et al. (2010) Social Neuroscience
Increasing psychological distance to selves
Ersner-Hershfield et al. (2009) SCAN
Investments in self-views
• People possess many different beliefs and ideas about themselves and
attach more or less value to particular self-views
• Investments in self-views (Pelham, 1991):
– Emotive investment: importance placed on a particular self-view
– Epistemic investment: certainty with which a particular self-view is
held
• If MPFC is involved in valuing the self, then MPFC activity should correlate
with people’s investments in self-views
Investments in self-views
fMRI session
240 traits
sincere
+
lazy
+
3.5 s
punctual
Self-descriptiveness judgments
“To what extent does this trait describe
you?” (1 = not at all; 4 = completely)
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Investments in self-views
Post-scan ratings
240 traits
sincere
+
lazy
Emotive investment
“How important is it for you to possess
or not possess this trait?” (1 = not at all
important; 4 = very important)
+
punctual
Epistemic investment
“How certain are you that you possess
or do not possess this trait?” (1 = not at
all; 4 = completely)
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Investments in self-views
Emotive investments
x = 10
L
L
y = 48
Epistemic investments
x = -2
L
L
y = 62
D’Argembeau et al. (2012) Cerebral Cortex
Individual differences in the value attached to self-reflection
Neural correlates of reflecting on the meaning of personal experiences are modulated
by individual differences in the value of self-reflection (Rumination-Reflection
Questionnaire; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999)
2,0
(reasoning > remembering parameter estimate)
1,5
MPFC
Left A1,0
x = -10
y = 62
0,5
0,0
Left IFG
-0,5
-1,0
Left MTG
-1,5
x = -50
-2,0
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
RRQ - reflection
D’Argembeau
D’Argembeauetetal.al.(in(inpreparation)
press), SCAN
Valuing outer aspects of self
People’s identities not only include elements that are unambiguously part of
them (e.g., their body and mental states) but also outer aspects of their lives,
such as their family, friends, and possessions (James, 1890; Belk, 1988)
Kim & Johnson (2012), SCAN
Valuing outer aspects of self
Kim & Johnson (2012), SCAN
What is the function of the MPFC?
•
Still debated
•
Distinct subregions of the MPFC probably support different processes that
intervene in self-representation
•
Ventral MPFC activity tracks the value attached to self-related contents
o decreases with increasing psychological distance to self-conceptions
o correlates with investments in self-conceptions
o is modulated by individual differences in the value of self-reflection
o correlates with the value assigned to owned objects
•
The function of the ventral MPFC may be to integrate information from various
sources in order to appraise and code personal value/significance
What is the function of the MPFC?
Degrees of personal value/significance
Non-self
Self
Self-enhancement
• Most people strive to create and maintain positive self-views (selfenhancement)
–
–
–
–
–
Better-than-average effect
Self-serving attributional bias
Illusion of control
Optimism about one’s personal future
…
Self-enhancement
Thinking about one’s hopes and aspirations (promotion self-reflection) versus
one’s duties and obligations (prevention self-reflection)
Johnson et al. (2006). SCAN
Self-enhancement
Promotion goals > prevention goals
Packer and Cunningham (2010), Social Neuroscience
Self-enhancement
Projecting oneself into specific future events
D’Argembeau et al. (2008) NeuroImage
Self-enhancement
dACC and OFC might be involved in correcting exagerated
positive self-evaluations
Negative correlations with
the above-average effect
Beer & Hughes (2010) NeuroImage
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
• Disturbance of self-processing is an important component of
many psychological disorders
–
–
–
–
–
–
Schizophrenia
Depression
Bipolar disorder
Autism
Social phobia
…
• DMN abnormalities are widespread across different
psychological disorders
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
 Disturbance of self-knowledge in schizophrenia
– Less stable trait self-knowledge (Boulanger et al., 2013)
– Difficulties in remembering specific past experiences and imagining specific future
events (D’Argembeau et al., 2008)
 Multimodal imaging (VBM, fMRI, DTI) points to the central role of the
MPFC in schizophrenia (Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2010)
VBM
fMRI
DTI
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Reduced MPFC activity when accessing semantic self-knowledge in schizophrenia
Holt et al. (2011) Biological Psychiatry
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
The MPFC does not differentiate self from others in individuals with autism
Lombardo et al. (2010) Brain
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
The MPFC and self-referential processing in major depression
Lemogne et al. (in press)
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Generalized social phobia
2 types of self-referential information
• 1st person: what I think about myself (e.g. “I am stupid”)
• 2nd person: comments coming from another person (e.g., “You are stupid”)
Blair et al. (2011) Psych Res Neuro
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Modifications of patterns of MPFC activity during self-processing may underlie
the restructuration of dysfunctional self-views following cognitive behavioral
therapy
Yoshimura et al. (in press) SCAN
Summary
• The self is a multifaceted construct => specify which aspect(s) of the self
you are studying
• Research points to the MPFC as a key neural structure underlying the ‘me’
or self-as-object
– Semantic self-knowledge
– Episodic self-knowledge
• An important function of the MPFC may be to process personal
significance/value
• Disturbances of self-knowledge in various psychopathological disorders
might be due (in part) to functional and/or structural abnormalities in the
MPFC
Acknowledgments
University of Liège
University of Geneva
Fabienne Collette
Steve Majerus
Pierre Maquet
Eric Salmon
David Stawarczyk
Martial Van der Linden
University of Southern California
Antoine Bechara
Gui Xue
Greater MPFC activity in response to negative feedback is associated with decreased state
self-esteem
Eisenberger et al (2011). J Cogn Neurosci
What is the function of the MPFC?
Similarity of self with other
Mitchell et al. (2006) Neuron
What is the function of the MPFC?
MPFC activity is sensitive to closeness but not similarity
Krienen et al. (2010) J Neurosci
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Lower self-esteem is associated with greater differential response to
positive versus negative social feedbacks in the MPFC
Sommerville et al. (2010) Cerebral Cortex
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
Lower self-esteem is associated with greater differential response to
positive versus negative social feedbacks in the MPFC
Sommerville et al. (2010) Cerebral Cortex
Self-knowledge and psychopathology
The MPFC and self-referential processing in major depression
Lemogne et al. (in press)
Self-enhancement
TMS applied to the MPFC reduces self-enhancement
Kwan et al. (2007)
Self-enhancement score: more desirable traits and less
undesirable traits were ascribed to the self compared to best
friend