From Assessment to
Intervention Part I: Who Do
We Assess?
By
Mike McCall, M.A. School Psychology
School Psychologist/Learning Specialist
&
Sheara Fernando, M.A. School Psychology
School Psychologist/Learning Specialist
Presentation Outline
• Background on Psychological and Academic
Screening
• Deciding Who Needs Screening
• Types of Screening Tools
• Use of Screening Data
• Case examples of Screening Data
• Questions and Discussion
Purpose of Psychological/Academic
Screening
• The goal of psychological and academic
screening is to quickly and cost effectively
identify students who may have deficiencies
or impairments that warrant intervention
• Part of the goal is to sort students, but that is
not enough
• Effective screening can guide intervention and
assessment decisions
Facts of Psychoeducational
Assessment
• Cost
– $100 to $250 dollars per hour
– Full assessments take 6-8 hours with the client if
done correctly
– Reports are going to take 2-4 hours of work
– 1 hour of review of the report
– Total $1,000 to over $2,000 for a full
psychoeducational assessment
– ADHD screenings cost $300 to $600 dollars
Determining Who Needs Screening
• Some schools with lots of resources may
screen all student-athletes when they enter
the university
• Others may want to target high risk
populations such as special/contract admits
or other high risk populations
• Still other schools may choose to screen only
after the student is referred/self-referred for
the problems
What are we looking for in a
screening?
• Specific Learning Disability – if student has
average cognitive ability but below average
reading, writing, math, or communication skills
• Behavioral/Neurological Disability – screening for
maladaptive behavior and disorders such as
ADHD
• Social/Emotional Disability – student has anxiety,
depression, bi-polar, schizophrenia, or any other
disorder that negatively impacts academic
functioning
Types of Screening Tools
• Norm-referenced tools (e.g. Nelson
Denny Reading Test, OWLS, or any other
standardized test that can be given by a
non-psychologist)
– Assess intelligence, achievement, behavior,
and social-emotional functioning
– Goal – assign a numerical value to client’s
functioning
– See strengths and weaknesses within the
client and compared to peers
Interpretation of Discrepancy and
Disability
Popular Norm Referenced Screening
Tools
• Nelson Denny Reading Tests – standardized
scores with percentiles and grade equivalents for
vocabulary, comprehension, reading rate, and
total reading
– Protocols are expensive ($112 per 50 response
booklets)
– Takes about 40 minutes to administer
– Scoring can be time consuming
– Provides cutoff scores for students in college that are
predicted to have reading difficulties
– Reading fluency may lack accuracy
Popular Norm Referenced Screening
Tools
• Woodcock Johnson – III tests of Achievement
(WJ-III) – Nationally standardized tests that relate
directly to assessment for learning disabilities
– Covers seven areas of learning disabilities
– Most tests have to be individually administered
– Writing samples, fluency tests, spelling, and
calculation can be group administered
– Protocols are expensive
– Scoring can be tedious for the writing
– May not help provide intervention information but
allows for comparison to a college population
Popular Norm Referenced Screening
Tools
• Behavior Assessment Scale for Children – 2nd
edition (BASC-2)
– Screens for social, emotional, behavioral, and
psychological strengths and deficits
– Good for evaluating possible problems with
attitudes towards school, attention, test anxiety,
alcohol problems, and psychological problems
– Protocols are expensive
– Must be given by a psychologists with training
– Time consuming
Popular Norm Referenced Screening
Tools
• Intelligence tests – CogAT, Stanford Binet V,
WASI
– CogAT can be group administered
– Standford Binet V and WASI need to be
individually administered
– Tests will have to be interpreted by a psychologists
– They are time consuming and expensive
– Scores can be derived from SAT scores (see next
slide)
Standard Scores from High School
• SAT/ACT scores – can be used to estimate IQ
– http://www.davidpbrown.co.uk/psychology/iqconversion.html
– http://www.iqcomparisonsite.com/GREIQ.aspx
• COGAT scores
Standardized Test of Study Skills
• www.hhpublishing.com/_assessments/LASSI/scales.html
• Learning and Study Skills Assessment (LASSI)
• 10 scales
–
–
–
–
–
Attitude
Motivation
Time Management
Anxiety
Concentration
– Information Processing
– Selecting Main Ideas
– Study Aids
– Self-testing
– Test Strategies
• Factors that significantly contribute to success in
college
• Can be modified through interventions
Screening with University Tools
• University required placement tests
– Foreign Language
– Math
– SAT-II tests
• These tests can give information about strengths and
weaknesses in classes that may be required for
graduation
• Foreign language difficulties could be related to
language deficits
• Math placement scores, which are often required, can
be a cheap way to evaluate math skills
Curriculum Based Measurement
• Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM) –
assesses student skills in terms of fluency
– Fluency is a combination of speed and accuracy when
performing a skill
– Students who lack academic fluency will likely
struggle in school
– Visit www.interventioncentral.com for more
information
– Shinn, Mark R. (Ed.) (1989). Curriculum-based
measurement: Assessing special children. New York:
Guilford Press.
CBM continued…
• Oral reading fluency – measured using 1- minute
reading probes
– Measure total words attempted
– Measure errors
– Subtract errors from total words to get words read
correctly per minute (WRCM)
– Oral reading fluency (Below 150 words per minute is
slow
– Accuracy is measured by dividing words read correctly
by words attempted and multiplied by 100
– Accuracy below 90% means the material to too
difficult
CBM continued…
• Writing Fluency – measures words written for
a prompt in a 3 minute time span after
thinking for 1 minute
– Measure total words, total letters, words spelled
correctly, or grammatically correct word units
– Helps see how students write with regards to
legibility, spelling, grammar, and speed
– A drawback is that there are no norms for college
students
CBM continued…
• Math fluency – measures the number of digits
correctly calculated per minute
– Gives an indication of specific areas students may
lack skills
– Doesn’t assess applied math reasoning
– No norms exist for college students
– Low accuracy and fluency may make it difficult for
students in college if they cannot use calculators
Curriculum Based Assessment (CBA)
• CBA directly observes a student performance
in local curriculum to make decisions about
future instruction and intervention
– Test what is taught
– Make assessment from student’s class material
– Not formalized
– Helps make decisions within specific material
– Helps psychologists see actual work
– Very cheap and often very quick to administer
Other Inexpensive Assessments
• Informal writing samples – poor organization,
weak vocabulary, poor spelling, grammatical
errors, lacks elaboration
• Observation of behavior (look for off-task,
frustration, fatigue)
• Poor grades (but not enough on its own)
Use of Screening Data for Referral
• Goal is to not refer students who are unlikely
to meet a diagnosis or be helped by an
assessment
• Assessment is expensive, time consuming,
and emotionally draining
• Likely, you will refer more for ADHD for
medication than other disorders
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
IQ/Cognitive functioning
• To make a diagnosis of LD, a student must have academic
achievement scores that are significantly lower than an IQ
score
– Generally IQ needs to be above 80, and achievement at a
minimum needs to be 1 standard deviation lower (e.g. Full
Scale IQ of 80 needs achievement scores of 65)
• Ask student if they have ever been tested for disabilities
• For IQ, use the SAT/IQ estimator
• If you can afford/have access to a psychologist, have them
give a brief IQ measure such as the SBV or WASI
• Have the student request CogAT scores from their high
school
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Reading
• Standardized reading measures – NDRT, WJ-III
reading subtests, WIAT-II, WRAT, GORT-4
– NDRT- can easily be group administered
– Total scores below 35 percentile are likely to have
difficulty with reading
– Individual achievement tests – compare to college
peers (should have norms for this) Scores below
85 will likely have trouble, and below 70 need
further referral
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Reading
• CBM – create 3 reading probes from an
introductory course textbook, administer all 3
and look at range/median scores
• Oral reading rates below 150 words per
minute could be referred for reading problems
• Accuracy scores below 90% may indicate
trouble with phonemic awareness and phonic
skills
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Reading
• Informal measures – have students read aloud to you
– Look for hesitations, decoding of unknown words,
rereading/backtracking
– Ask questions about reading to measure comprehension
– Have students highlight what is important
– Ask them to define difficult words to check for
understanding
– Compare their understanding to when you read with them
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Writing
• Standardized tests - WJ-III writing subtests, WIATII, WRAT, OWLS
– Individual achievement tests – compare to college
peers (should have norms for this) Scores below 85
will likely have trouble, and below 70 need further
referral
• Look at SAT writing scores – may not be used for
admitting students, but scores should be
reported
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Writing
• W-CBM/Informal measures – Goal is to assess
quality of writing
– Look for spelling errors, grammatical difficulties,
handwriting quality, organization, ability to type,
fluency
– Students with low scores may have trouble in classes
with a heavy focus on papers or in-class writing
– Have students read their writing aloud to see if they
self correct
– Organization and elaboration problems should be
identified as well
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Math
• Standardized tests - WJ-III math subtests, WIAT-II,
WRAT, Key Math
– Individual achievement tests – compare to college peers
(should have norms for this) Scores below 85 will likely
have trouble, and below 70 need further referral
• University required math tests – SAT-II, or math
placement scores
– Talk with the math placement coordinator obtaining and
understanding the results
– Are the problems conceptual, calculation based, or both?
Using Screening Data For LD Referrals
Math
• M-CBM/Informal measures – Goal is to assess
problems in math
– Many students struggle with math
– Math takes a great deal of time to learn, so many students
don’t spend the time trying to grasp the skills
– Use M-CBM to assess fluency and accuracy for calculations
– Use an introductory math text to assess how they try to
solve math problems (e.g. skip steps, disorganized
approach, messy writing, lack of skills, ability to use a
calculator)
– Refer students who seem to have conceptual problems
understanding math for further testing (a calculator may
be enough for those who understand how to calculate)
Using Screening Data For Psychological
Referrals
ADHD, Social/Emotional/Behavioral
• If a behavior screening reveals at least 1
standard deviation from average, it may be
worth a referral to a psychologist
• Scores that are 2 standard deviations above
normal should be referred as soon as possible
• Measures include – BASC-2, CBCL, CAARS,
Brown ADD scales
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• IQ – not particularly helpful because it is a
stable construct, but consult a psychologist on
how to make sense of the scores
– Working memory skills can tell you what to expect
when students are learning new information
– Perceptual reasoning can help you see if they have
difficulty deconstructing and reconstructing
information (can they put the puzzle together)
– Verbal scores indicate can help you see how well
they can solve problems with language
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• Reading – Standard scores and percentiles may help
with LD referral, but the tests may not indicate the
quality of the problems
– NDRT – Low vocabulary could indicate students need to
work on learning definitions while reading; low
comprehension – use prereading strategies and selfquestioning; fluency – repeated reading and listening
passage preview, Kurzweil/audio books
– WJ-III – nonsense words can reveal decoding skills
– CBM – indicate fluency difficulties, so use repeated
reading, listening passage preview, , Kurzweil/audio books
– Informal reading – for comprehension, teach highlighting,
Q-system, self questioning, organization of paragraphs,
prereading, , Kurzweil/audio books
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• Writing – writing problems can be varied, so
intervention should target problems
– Low spelling – have students practice important words for
classes (key terms) using cover, copy, compare; have
students practice phonemic awareness; have students
reread their writing
– Grammar – teach basic sentence structures to use, subject
verb agreement, consistent tenses, advanced punctuation
– Organization – Analyze well written paragraphs, teach
students how to outline (e.g. Inspiration)
– Elaboration – pick simple objects/ideas and have students
create lists of descriptors, Inspiration
– Fluency – practice writing short answer and essays for
tests
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• Math – these problems can be either conceptual,
fluency based, or calculation based
– Fluency – flashcards, calculators (if allowed),
worksheets, practice problems
– Calculation – same as fluency (but check to see if it is
don’t know how to perform the operation or
carelessness), Touch Math
– Conceptual – connect abstract concepts to real world
applications, often students need to spend more time
thinking about the math problems, practice problem
solving steps
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• ADHD – Consult with a psychologist, but these
interventions can be useful
– Study in distraction free settings (1 person rooms)
– Give frequent breaks (15 minutes of work, 1-2
minutes of relaxation)
– Break studying up over the course of the day
– Foster use of a planning system
– Add structure to daily routine
– Intermix stimulating activities with mundane activities
– Teach organization
Using Screening Data for Intervention
• Study skills – some students may have descent
academic skills but do not know how to study
– LASSI – pick competencies that are low and try to
improve one to two at a time
– Create small peer mentoring groups
– Create a summer bridge program that emphasizes
studying
– How to Study in College by Pauk and Owens
– Have counseling center/psychologist run test
anxiety groups
Case Examples
Student 1
• 18 years old
• NDRT (Total – 1, Vocabulary – 3, Comprehension
– 1, Rate – 6)
• WJ-III writing samples subtest (SS – 86, 18th
percentile)
• SAT – 630 ACT Composite - 13 HSGPA – 3.16
• IQ conversion – 70
• What would you do?
Case Examples
Student 2
• 18 years old
• NDRT (Total – 4, Vocabulary – 3, Comprehension
– 7, Rate – 10)
• WJ-III writing samples subtest (SS – 94, 36th
percentile)
• ACT Composite - 15 HSGPA – 2.113
• IQ conversion – 81
• What would you do?
Case Examples
Student 3
• 18 years old
• NDRT (Total – 44, Vocabulary – 42,
Comprehension – 47, Rate – 14)
• WJ-III writing samples subtest (SS – 101, 53rd
percentile)
• BASC-2 – attention problems in at-risk range
• SAT – 910 HSGPA – 3.4
• IQ conversion – 97
• What would you do?
Process of Referral
• Use one or a few psychologists who are
trusted by disability services
• Using the same people consistently can help
build a working relationship so assessments
happen in a timely fashion and are useful
• Ideally, programs may need to hire services of
a licensed professional at least on a part time
basis
Process of Referral
• Expect full assessments to take 4-8 hours of face
time
• ADHD assessments may take 1-2 hours of face
time
• Students will get better results early in the day
when they are not exhausted
• May need to find psychologist who can assess on
weekends
• Reports take several hours to write, so there may
be a week to a month delay from testing to when
the report is ready
Process of Referral
• Send a packet of screening data to the
psychologist
• Write a description of the student’s behaviors
that you are concerned about
• Give a copy of the university’s disability
criteria to the psychologist
• Make sure the student agrees to complete the
testing
Questions and Discussion
• What do your schools do for screening?
• How many students are being referred for
psychoeducational assessments?
• Are you structuring interventions around
screening data?
• Others?
References
• Sattler, J. (2001). Assessment of children:
Cognitive applications (4th ed.). La Mesa, CA
US: Jerome M Sattler Publisher.
• www.interventioncentral.com
• Shinn, Mark R. (Ed.) (1989). Curriculum-based
measurement: Assessing special children. New York:
Guilford Press.
Presenter Contact Information
• Mike McCall , School Psychologist/Learning
Specialist
mccallmw@sc.edu
803 – 777 - 3581
• Sheara Fernando, School
Psychologist/Learning Specialist
fernando@mailbox.sc.edu
803 – 777 - 3581