Origin of language: Fossil and
archeological evidences
Jun Hong Kim
A few facts
Oldest evidence for written language:
about 6000 years ago, among relics of
Sumerian civilization.
 Speech allows us to communicate informa
tion at an exceeding rapid rate.

A few facts (cont.)

Nonhuman primates do complex vocal
communications.
◦ From 1980’s, previous dichotomies between
human and non-human primate language
abilities have gradually broken down:
voluntary vs. involuntary, referential vs.
indexical, graded vs. discrete, learned vs.
unmodified.

However, no abstract content, no
grammar, inflexible in incorporating new
concepts
Teaching human language to chimp and
gorilla: partially succeeded: Hundreds
of words, spontaneous use of signs
 However, they (such as Kanzi) are
superior to their conspecifics in their
ability to learn and use language.

Fossil Evidences
No direct evidence! Because vocal tract is
made up of soft tissue.
 Moreover, the capacity for speech is
neither necessary nor sufficient for
language.
 Articulate speech: When? Probably, early
Homo.

Endocranium

Language center?
◦ Broca’s area/ Wernicke’s area

Seem to better developed in early Homo
◦ Endocast of KNM-ER 1470: signs of Broca’s
area (Tobias 1981, Falk 1983), Expansion in
prefrontal cortex (Falk 1983)
◦ Brain lateralization: right-handedness suggested by stone-tool knapping (Toth 1985).
Criticism
• Most endocasts are incomplete or distorted.
• Homologues of Broca’s and Wernicke’s area
are present in chimpanzee brain.
Basicranium flexion
Lieberman and his associates (1972, 1991)
proposed that the shape of cranial base
correlates with the size of pharynx and the
position of larynx.
 Descent of larynx during development
enables human adult to make discrete
sounds (such as [i], [u], [a],[k],[g]) by making
vocal tract curved and large.
 From reconstructed hominid cast, they
rebuilt laryngeal structures, estimated
sound-production capability.

Source: Klein
(1999)

They concluded that numerous hominid
fossil, especially Neanderthals, did not have
full linguistic ability.
Criticism
It is impossible to make certain parts from
the original cast (Burr 1976).
 The basicranial flexion of some early Homo
are within the range of that of modern
human (Frayer and Nicolay 2000).

Source: Frayer and
Nicolay (2000)

Homo ergaster may be first hominid who is
able to do a degree of articulate speech.
Gibson and Jessee (1994) failed to find consistent association between features of
cranial base and laryngeal position in a
collection of modern Americans from Texas.
 Langdon (2005) argues that specialized
neurological control over the necessary
muscles might be more important than
basicranial flexion. Red deer have lowered
the pharynx to make deeper and louder
calls, but they cannot do complex speech.
 More importantly, a narrower range would
not have precluded spoken language.

Size of hypoglossal canal
Hypoglossal canal may be additional evidence
for speech. Responsible for innervation of the
tongue. (Kay et al. 1998)
 Australopithecines and early Homo are within
the ape range.

Size of hypoglossal canal (cont.)

The canal size is a poor indicator of nerve
diameter because there are numerous
non-human primate taxa that have hypoglossal canals within the modern human
size range (DeGusta et al. 1999).
Size of spinal cord and respiratory
system
Large diameter of neural canals may
facilitate increased motor control of the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles for the
control of breathing during speech (MacLarnon and Hewitt 1999).
 Rib cage

◦ Funnel shape: chimp and Australopithecines
◦ Barrel shape: from Nariokotome boy (WT15000), dated 1.6 mya.

Development of external nose has
implication for speech sounds, such as
some consonant produced by nasal
resonance (e.g. [n]).
 From early Homo
Hyoid bone


Kebara Neanderthal hyoid bone has
completely modern shape. Accordingly,
“Neanderthals appear to be anatomically
capable of competent speech (Arensberg et
al. 1990).”
In human, hyoid bone is not directly involved
in speech, although in apes it is important in
some vocalization. More importantly, there
are only two intact hyoid bones of hominid
and their morphology is completely modern
(Frayer and Nicolay 2000).
Archeological Evidence

According to archeological evidence, only
fully modern humans after 50kya possessed
fully modern language ability.
◦ Tool making and language are sequential behavior
◦ Complex societies need arbitrary imposition of
standards and patterns, which would be impossible without language.
◦ Artistic expression: introspective consciousness.
◦ Symbolic behavior: use of mineral pigments,
manufacture of crudely shaped figurines and
carving marks on stone or bone
Why language? – Selective pressure
1.
2.
3.
Lieberman (1984): Tradeoff between
inhalation and phonation
Byproduct of bipedalism: basicranial
flexion facilitated head balance in a
bipedal posture.
Byproduct of climate adaptation:
reshaped upper respiratory tract.
Conclusion
Pace of language evolution: gradual or
abrupt?
 When? Early Homo? Or, anatomically
modern human?
 The use of language, as opposed to the
capacity for it, may or may not have
appeared at the same time.
