FST 504:
TECHNOLOGY OF MISCELLANEOUS
FOOD COMMODITY 3 Units
Section 2
Dr Mrs J.M. Babajide
Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
Course requirements:
• CAT: 30% (Test 20% & assignment 10%)
• Exam: 70%
• 70% Class attendance compulsory
SUGAR AND CONFECTIONERY
INTRODUCTION
•Definition of sugar (sucrose) - form of carbohydrate
suitable as a sweetener
•Major source of sugar e.g cane and beet
•World production of sugar - The world’s highest
producer of sugar produce about 90 million tones/year,
60% sugar cane and 40% from sugar beet.
•Sugar as an important confectionery ingredient - basic
ingredient for classical sugar confectionery
Production of raw sugar
sugar cane
shredding
Squeezing under hydrolytic pressure
raw sucrose sugar
Sugar cane
Sugar beet
washing
slicing
diffusing
sucrose liquor
Sugar Beet
At this stage the liquor contain 13 – 14% sucrose.
Purification/Refinery of raw sugar
Raw sugar
Mixing (with syrup obtained from the latter stages)
concentrating
Centrifuging
(under vacuum)
(at high speed of 1,200 rpm or more)
Sugar crystals
Washing (with hot water thus causing re-dissolution of sugar)
Adding Lime milk /carbonation
Filtering (under pressure)
Decolourising (with active carbon)
Concentration to super-saturation level (using evaporator)
Refined sugar (80% solid)
Drying
Dried Sugar crystals
Typical analyses of cane or beet sugar
White
Sugar Brown Sugar
(%)
(%)
Purity (Sucrose)
99.8
92.0
Moisture
0.1
3.5
0.05
4.0
Ash
0.02
0.5
Impurities
0.005
0.01
Reducing
Sugar
(as
in
invert sugar)
Physical properties of sucrose
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Temperature
oC
oF
20
68
50
122
100
212
Solubility
%
Solubility
67.1
72.4
84.1
SH
Specific heat (SH) (67% solution)
20
68
0.63
106
218
0.72
Equilibrium relative humidity
60%
Boiling point
67% solution boils at
105oC (225oF)
Optical rotation
+66.5o
Specific gravity (SG)
Temp
SG
for 67.1% solution
20
1.33
“
60
1.29
for 74% solution
20
1.37
“
60
1.33
Bulk density 47 -55lb/ft3 (varying according to package)
Traditional Degree of sugar boilings
Name (Consistency)
Observation
Approx. temp
Thread (gloss)
Large Thread (large gloss)
Small pearl
Large pearl
Blow (scuffle)
Feather
111oC
Small ball
Large ball
Large Crack
Medium Crack
Hard crack
Extra hard crack
Caramel
Thin strands
103oC
Stronger strand
104oC
form small droplets
105oC
form large droplets
106oC
bubbles set on syrup
110oC
form feathery hard strands
syrup form soft ball
116oC
syrup form hard ball
120oC
form thin sheet
129oC
form slightly brittle sheet
132oC
rapidly formed sheet
143oC
sheet shows signs of browning
168oC
brown brittle sheet
180oC
PROPERTIES OF SUCROSE SUGAR
1. Solubility of Sugar
• Saturation concentration of sugar:- (at room
temperature a part of H2O will dissolve 2 parts of
sugar (67%)
• Factors that determine concentration of sugar:temperature, rate of agitation, degree of under
saturation and inversely to the crystal size).
• Rate of dissolution of sugar:- For example , in
preparing a saturated solution at room temperature,
the last few % of sugar will dissolve very slowly except
in the use of heat
• Super-saturated sugar solution:- (a
solution containing more sugar than the
saturation level), when heated and allowed
to cool to room temperature – a 74%
solution may be obtained.
• Instability of super-saturated sugar:- any
vibration or ingress of solid particles
(which act as nuclei) may result in rapid
crystallization of excess sugar.
• Addition of mixtures of sugars (fructose, sobitol
etc) can lead to higher dissolved solids e.g. the
inclusion of invert sugar in the optimal ratio
increases the solubility at 20oC from 67.7% for
sucrose alone to 75.1% for the mixture.
• The degree brix is the unit of measurement of
concentration of sugar solution and the common
instrument used is hydrometer having Baume
scale (% of sucrose by wt.) e.g if 50g sugar is
dissolved in 50g of H2O, it will be written as 50%
w/w.
2. Bulkiness property of sugar
• It acts as a bulking agent (filler), a diluents and
carrier of trace ingredients like colourants,
flavours thereby improving their dispersion.
• Sugar crystals improve the particulate flow
characteristics of mixture, an important feature in
a highly mechanized food industry.
• Its particle size aids wetting and dispersion when
H2O is added.
• When mixed with fats, it enables the
incorporation of air into the mixture which makes
it important in generating the lightens of cake.
• It provides mouth feel in soft drinks at relatively
low concentration while at high concentration, it
gives the characteristics
e.g. in boiled
sweets.
3. Relative Humidity of sugar
• Sucrose sugar can tolerate to a wide range of
humidity. However, it does have its limitations in its
tendency to cake or solidify in it’s storage container.
• Thus, sugar remains free flowing under normal
European climatic conditions. When the relative
humidity drops below 70%, the syrup form crystals.
When the R.H is over 70%, it gives rise to
conditions which encourage mould growth during
storage.
4. Sugar Confectionery Texture
A
B
C
D
E
Brittle,
crisp,
Crunchy,
flaky
chewy,
fluffy, hard,
light, short,
Soft,
spongy,
Springy,
stiff,
Tender,
tough
chalky,
coarse,
crystalline,
lumpy,
powdery,
rough,
sandy, ,
smooth
Crumbly,
dough,
fibrous,
mushy,
pasty,
spongy,
Stringy
greasy, dry
moist, oily
sticky ,
tacky
tready,
waxy,
wetty,
Texture variation can be achieved for confections by
one or more of the following procedures:
• vary the moisture content
• vary the content type and strength of gelling agent
• vary the sucrose-glucose syrup ratio
• vary the sucrose-invert sugar solid ratio
• vary the pH
• alter the process temperature conditions
• vary the milk protein content
• seed the batch with fondant or icing sugar
• change the required level of total sugars
• alter processing conditions to vary the particle size
• alter the incorporated air content
FORMS/TYPES OF SUCROSE SUGAR
1. Granulated mineral water sugar
2. Granulated sugar
3. Industrial granulated
4. Cube sugar
5. Nibs
6. Caster
7. Icing sugar
8. Liquid sugar
9. Brown sugar
10. Mollases
11. Microcrystalline sugar
GLUCOSE SYRUP
• Glucose syrup - key ingredient in the confectionery
industry.
• It is a refined concentrate aqueous solution of D(+)-1glucose, maltose and other polymers of D-glucose
obtained by controlled partial hydrolysis of edible starch.
• According to Codex Alimetarius, Glucose syrup can be
defined as a purified concentration of aqueous solution of
nutritive saccharides obtained from starch.
• Can be obtained from starchy foods such as corn,
cassava, potato etc.
The industrial production of glucose syrup consists of 2
basic processes:
1. Starch hydrolysis
2. Refining of the hydrolysate
• In acid hydrolysis, dextrose equivalent (degree
of hydrolysis) of 30-35DE could be obtained
which is still of higher quality required by the
food and confectionery industry.
• DE is the degree of hydrolysis of starch that
takes place and it is the total reducing power i.e.
in the acid hydrolysis of glucose syrup, we have
the composition of dextrose, maltose, maltotriose, malto-tetrose, malto-pentose, maltohexose and higher sugars in various
percentages making a total of 100% for each
DE, as shown below:
Destrose Equivalent of sugars
Type
Low
Low
DE 26
DE 38
%
%
%
%
Monosacchari
de-dextrose
8.0
15.0
Disaccharide
-maltose
7.5
12.5
Trisaccharides
7.5
11.0
Tetra-saccharides 7.0
9.0
Penta-ssacharides
6.5
Hexo-saccharide 5.0
7.0
Hepta-saccharides 4.5
5.0
High sugars
54.0
32.5
Regular
DE 42
DE 55
%
19.3
Intermediate High High Maltose
30.8
14.3
18.1
11.8 13.2
10.0
9.5
8.0
8.4
6.6
5.1
5.6 4.2
24.0 11.9
DE 64
42
37.0
5.9
%
31.5
11.0
5.0
7.2
3.0
2.0
6.5
44.7
12.7
3.3
4.0
1.5
1.0
27.4
1.3
Function of Glucose syrup in confectionery
Type of Syrup
Property/functional use
Body agent
Browning reaction
Cohesiveness
Colour stabilization
Crystallisate control
Emulsion stabilizer
Fermentability
Flavour enhancement
Flavour transfer medium
Foam stabilizer
Freezing point depression
Humenctancy
Hygroscopicity
Increased vapour pressure
Nutritive value
Osmotic pressure
Preservation
Prevention of coarse ice crystals
Prevention of sucrose crystallisate
Sheen power
Solubility effect
Sweetness
Thickening agent
Viscosity
Key:
* type of syrup which have the function
Low DE
*
High DE
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
BOILED SWEETS
• High boiled sweets are sugar products which
are glossy in appearance. They can be
considered as sugar liquids with very high
viscosities.
• The finished product of boiled sweet is a
super cooled liquid at ambient temperature
with a solid content of 97 – 98%.
• Although there is super saturation at the
solid state with respect to sucrose, but
because of the addition of glucose syrup,
the formulation cannot crystallize.
• Other ingredients that can be added to
boiled sweets are flavours, milk, fruits,
chocolate, colours etc.
Production of High Boiled Sweets (HBS)
There are 3 main production methods for HBS. They are
• Open pans
• Vacuum cookers
• Continuous cookers
Each of this require different ratio of sugar to glucose syrup
to give the best result.
Sucrose: glucose
• Open pan
70:30 to 66.5:33.5
• Vacuum cookers
65:35 to 50:50
• Continuous cookers
60:40 to 45:55
• Approximate temperature of 156OC is
used during open pans.
• Vacuum cooking can be as low as 110 –
129OC
Precautions during HBS production :
• During
cooling,
prevent
seeding
(introduction of nuclei), this is because a
grain of sugar drop into the mass will
induce crystallisation
• Ensure good doctoring
• Stop stirring after attaining desired
temperature
Product types of boiled sweets
• High boiled sweets manufacturing technology ranges from
lollipops, candies, cones, medicated confectioneries,
lettered rock, soft centred sweets, butter boilings,
laminated (crackened or honey combed sweets to grained
Edinburgh rock; marshmallow, Nougat, butterscotch, candy
etc.
• Description of some Boiled sweets
E.G
Laminated or Honey comb sweet:
• This is a multilayered sweets with a crunchy texture made
from many layers of cooked sugar having its centre filled
with honey, nut paste, peanuts or other suitable fillings and
finally wrapped in a thin envelope of high boiled sweets or
sugar.
Sweets
Candy cane
lollipop
Rockets
Marshmallow
Gums, Jellies and Pastilles:
•
Gums, Jellies and Pastilles constitute a large
class of confectionery which can be manufactured
with many variations.
• They are comparatively low boiled and contain
about 20% moisture.
• Obtained by the use of various types of water
binding gelling agents such as gum Arabic, starch,
gelatin, agar and pectin.
Tablets and Lozenges:
• Tablets are made by compressing powdered or
granulated ingredients in a confined space (die)
until the particles bond together.
• They have very smooth surface and very little
amount of moisture.
• Ingredients: Base material (sucrose), binders
(gum) lubricants, starch (which swells upon
contact with water and breaks up the tablet).
• Lozenges are made from icing sugar, mixed with a
binder, sheeted, but into shape and allowed to dry.
• When menthols/mints, vitamin C or other sore throat
medicines are added, they are called medicated
lozenges.
• In effervescent tablets, citric acid and sodium
bicarbonate are included. Colours and flavours can
also be added.
• Lozenges tend to have hard rough finishing while
compressed tablets have smooth shiny surfaces.
Chewing and Bubble gum:
• Chewing gums are sticky candy to be chewed but not
swallowed. It is composed of mixed natural (chiclemilky juice of the tropical sapodilla tree Archras zapota
of Central America) and synthetic gums, resins
together with various sugars and flavouring materials
(such as mints).
• The difference between chewing gum and bubble gum
is the ability of Bubble gum to make bubbles and
stretch when blown. Bubble gum contains higher
levels of polymers or rubbers.
• In sugar free or sugar less chewing gum, sorbitol,
mannitol, xylitol are used.
SOFT DRINK BEVERAGES
What is Soft Drink Beverage?
• Soft drinks are non-alcoholic carbonated or
non-carbonated
beverages
usually
containing a sweetening agent, edible acids
and natural or artificial flavours.
Examples of Soft Drink
• Soft drinks include, cola beverages, fruit
flavoured drinks, ginger ale, and root beer,
also include soda water, seltzer water and
tonic water.
History of Soft drink
• The first attempt to manufacture carbonated soft
drinks were the result of a desire to duplicate the
naturally effervescent, mineral-rich waters that
flowed from the springs at the well-known
European spas.
• John Pemberton invented caramel coloured syrup
in 1886, when diluted and carbonated, this syrup
is called coca-cola because it originally contained
cocaine from coco leaf and rich in caffeine from
the kolanut. This premiere flavoured soft drink
was first patented in 1893.
• In 1984, in response to the public demand for more
healthful and less fattening foods as follows 1. Soft drink manufactures began formulating with
natural juices.
2. Vitamin enriched soft drinks
3. Sugar, caffeine, sodium -free soft drinks also
became popular in the late twentieth century.
PRODUCTION OF SOFT DRINK
• Water
treatment
using sand filter
/activated carbon / superchlorination and
coagulation.
• Carbonation of treated water to give the
characteristic effervescence
sparkle) soft drinks.
(fizz
and
• During carbonation, Chilling is carried out
• Finished soft drinks
can be produced by
diluting a mixture of non-carbonated water and
flavoured sugar syrup with highly carbonated
water then bottled
• or syrup is measured directly with bottles then
filled with carbonated water injected under high
pressure.
• The bottles are
on
the
capped
assembly
packed
in
inspected,
line,
cartons
by another machine
or
cases
ready
then
for
Soft Drink Packaging
• Carbonated soft drinks are packaged for sale in
variety of containers such as glass bottles, tin or
aluminum cans and plastic bottles.
• Non-carbonated soft drinks can be packaged not
only in bottles and cans but also in treated card
board carton (tetrapak) since they are not under
pressure.
Some special beverage categories are:
1. Non-carbonated soft drinks which are produced
with some ingredients except CO2 and techniques
of carbonated soft drink but not protected from
spoilage. They are usually pasteurized in bulk or
continuous flash pasteurized either prior to filling
or in the bottle.
2. Powdered soft drinks are made by blending
flavouring materials such as dry acids, gums,
sweeteners and artificial colour.
3. Nutraceutical beverages are drinks formulated
with special functional ingredients that promote
some aspect of health or reduce the risk of
certain diseases.
Nutritive Sweeteners used in beverages
Sweetener
Sweetness
Taste
(Sucrose = 1)
Characteristics
Acesulfame-K 130-200
Rapid
onset,
(sunette)
persistent side-tastes
at high concentrations
Aspartame
180
Clean,
similar
to
(Nutrasweet)
sucrose, no bitter
after taste
Saccharin
200-700
Sucralose
(Splenda)
600
Uses
Table sugar, dry beverage
mixes, chewing gum
Table sugar, dry beverage ,
chewing gum, beverage
confections, fruit spreads,
toppings and fillings
Slow onset persistent Soft drinks, juice, fruit drink,
after taste, bitter at other beverage, table use
high concentrations
sweeteners,
processed
fruits, chewing gum and
confections,
gelatins
desserts, salad dressing,
baked goods.
Can withstand high Soft drinks, baked goods,
temperature without chewing gum, table use
losing flavour
sweetener or table sugar.
PROJECT
Student will produce:
• Sugar syrup with various
consistency
• High boiled sweets of various
types