HUMAN GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE LIFE
SPAN-FROM CHILDHOOD TO OLDAGE
“He who will learn to fly one day
must first learn to stand ,walk, run,
climb and dance; one cannot fly into
flying”
Lifespan or Periods in Life cycle
• Development psychologist conceptualize
human beings growing through Stages
1. Life begins right after conception(Prenatal)
2. Infancy-(0-1yr)
3. Toddler-(2-3yrs)
Lifespan CONT’D
4. Early childhood(3-6yrs)- Preschool
5. Late childhood(6-12yrs)
6. Adolescence(12-18/19yrs)
7. Adulthood-20+
8. Old age or senescence
Development
• Changes in growth and capabilities with time
or across the lifespan
• How people change across the lifespan
Domains of Development:
1. Physical development
i. Deals with all growth and changes that occur
in a persons body
ii. Motor skills
Domains CONT’D
2. Cognitive development-language, memory
Processes to acquire knowledge or become
aware of the environment
3. Psychosocial development- emotions,
personality, relationship with other people and
interaction b/n individuals and the surrounding
culture
Major Issues in Development
• Heredity and the environment
i. Nature/Nurture- Are intelligence ,personality etc acquire or
learnt
- Is behavior determined by heredity or
environment
- Nativistic
- Empirist- tabla rasa
Major Issues CONT’D
ii. Interaction or both
- Both nature and nurture affects a persons
dev’t
- Heredity
- Physical env’t
Major Issues CONT’D
iii. Relative importance of Heredity and
Environment
- How much genetic and biological make up are
contributing
- How much social and environmental factors
are contributing
Major Issues CONT’D
2. Maturational Vrs Learning
• Certain structure must mature before they can
function
• Maturation-sequense of changes in behaviour or
development that result from genetic groupings
• Learning refers to changes within the individual
as a result of specific experiences
• Maturation results from aging and learning by
experience
Prenatal Development
• It consist of three stages
i. Germinal stage- first two weeks after
conception-zygote
ii. Embryonic stage- 2-8 weeks –embryo
iii. Fetal Stage- 9weeks till birth-fetus
Germinal Stage
• Begins when a sperm fertilizes an ovum
• Cell division-mass of cell
• Attaching itself to the mother womb
• 10-14days after conception
Embryonic Stage
• Two life support structures are develop:
• Placenta-nutrition from mothers blood to
umbilical cord
• Umbilical cord-nutrients to embryo and waste
products to the mother
• Bodily organs and systems begin to form
• By 8 weeks the heart is beating, eye, brain
Fetal Stage
• Muscle strengthen and other body systems
develop completely
• 24 weeks the eyes are opened
• 27 weeks fetus is viable
Factors Which Affect Prenatal
Development
• Genetic Factors
• Environmental factors
Genetic factors
• Humans consist of 23 pairs of chromosomes
or 46 chromosomes
• Chromosomes pairs are called disomy
• Chromosomes determine sex
• Sex genes are on the 23rd chromosome pair
• Male XY and Female XX
• Y chromosome determines maleness
Genetics CONT’D
• During the germinal stage some mishaps can
happened and the 23 pair may be missing
• Monosomy (XO) -birth deformities e.g is
Turners’ syndrome
• Trisomy (XXY)- Klienfelter’s syndrome-males
with female x’tics
• XYY-extra masculinity-found in prisons
Genetics CONT’D
• Down syndrome- not sex linked
• 21st chromosome pair
• Mothers over age 40(20x)
Other Pathological Genetic Traits
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PKU-Phenylketouria
Galactosemia
Heamophilia
Taysac’s disease
Sickle cell disease
Color blindness
Cretinism
Environmental Factors
• Mothers contribution
• Father’s role
Mothers Contribution
• General health of the mother
• Diet during pregnancy
• Sexually Transmitted diseases(STD’s)
• Emotional State of the mother during
pregnancy
General Health Of the Mother/STD’S
Maternal illnesses
• Can terminate the pregnancy during the first
three months
• Chronic disease such DM,HTN,
• STD’s such syphllis, gonorrhea, genital herpes
• UTI, influenza, rubella, mumps
Diet
• Severely malnourish mother cannot maintain
pregnancy
• Spontaneous abortion
• Prematurity
• Still birth
• Mental retardation and damage to the
nervous system
Drugs
• Cigarettes and other drugs-PMB,SB
• Alcohol-fetal Alcoholic syndrome-PMB ,SB,
LBW, Miscarriage
• Narcotics-inadequate supply of oxygenhyperactivity, infection, withdrawal symptoms,
death
• Prescription and over the counter drugs
Emotions
• Massive out pouring of hormones
• Health and behavioral problems-irritability,
crying and later MH problems
• Elevation in GI disorders
Fathers Contribution
• Fathers contribute half of the baby’s genes
• Defective sperms can results in birth defects
• Sperms detoriate with age- Marfan’s syndrome
• Exposure of pelvic area to high temperatures
,chemicals and drugs
Abortion
• Termination, expulsion or the removal of the
developing organism b/4 the 28 week
• Three types:
• Miscarriage
• Spontaneous Abortion
• Induced Abortion
Abortion CONT’D
• Miscarriages and abortions are natures way of
eliminating abnormal fetuses
• Higher incidence of abnormality
• Male fetuses are spontaneously aborted than
females
• Premature death rates are higher than males
than females
• Following birth females resist infection and
survive more than males
Premature Birth
Two criteria are used
• Length of pregnancy
• Size of the baby
• An infant weighing less than 5.5 lbs or 2.5kg
• Chdn born before the 37 week of gestation
Two types
• Low birth weight: small- for- date
• Pre-term babies
Causes of Prematurity
• Real cause is unknown-These factors
contribute:
• Overcrowding in the uterus
• An illness or disease
• Mother health or nutrition prior to pregnancy
• Mothers age height and weight
• Smoking and use of drugs
• Uterine problems and lack of prenatal care
Consequences of Prematurity
• More likely to show intellectual and learning
difficulties
• May be found in classes for retarded chdn
• Social difficulties-hyperactivity
• Neurological problems
Consequences CONT’D
• Likely to die in first month of life
• Premature males are more likely to experience
learning difficulties and school related problems
• More likely to be abused by parents
• Not all of them will suffers these setbacks
Physical Development: Infancy to
Adolescence
Principles
• Cephalo-Caudal-growth proceeds from head
to foot-baby gains control of the muscles of
the head and neck then the abdomen then
the legs
• Proximo-distal-physical growth and motor
development proceeds from the centre of the
body towards the periphery
Factors Affecting Physical
Development
• Nutrition
• Health or disease
• Heredity
• Ecology: equator-artic
• Race-cultural and maturational factors
INFANCY
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At birth infant weighs 6-9lbs (2,700-4000g)
19-21 inches long (48-53cm)
Head circumference 13-14 inches(33-35cm)
Chest 12-13 inches(30.5-33cm)
By the end of infancy or second year the
normal weight is equal to ¼ of his adult weight
• Height is 1/2 of his expected adult height
Preschool
• Growth in weight and height is less rapid
• Both ht and wt continuous to increase at a
faster rate
• Weight gain slows down or may even stop
Toilet and bladder training
• Bowel training precedes bladder training
• Girls achieve toilet training earlier than boys
but will continue to wet the bed longer than
boys
• Some train themselves by just telling parents
its time to go to the bathroom
Toilet Training CONT’D
Those who continue to wet the bed or soil
themselves may suffer from:
• Late development of the muscular system
• Emotional problems
• Combination of both
Retardation in Walking
• Most chdn walk by 18months or by the end of
infancy
Factors
1.Nutrtional deficiency
2. Disease or illness
3. Obesity
4. Tight clothing
5. Unsuitable shoes
Walking CONT’D
6. Emotional blocking e.g.
• Fear of walking –slight accident
• Ridicule at first attempt
• Domestic tension and hostility
• Parental attitude
• Mental retardation
Late Childhood
• By age 6 most chdn have lost their soft
contours and heavy structure that make them
appealing to adults
• In late childhood-arms and legs grow faster
than the trunk-spindly appearance
• Girls mature early than boys but boys are
more taller and heavier
Adolescence
There is a rapid increase in:
• Body size
• Changes in body proportion and composition
• Swift development of reproductive organs and
other sexual x’tics
• “Growth spurt”-girls first-11-13 than boys
Keywords
• Primary sexual x’tics-genital and inter
reproductive organs
• Secondary sexual X’tics-special features other
than the above
• Pubescence-stage of physiological growth
when reproductive functions become mature
• Puberty-point at which an individual is
sexually mature and is able to bear chdn
Sequence of Growth
Boys
• Penis doubles in length and volume of testes
increase in 10 folds(17 years)
• Followed rapidly by secondary sexual x’tics:
- Pubic hair
- Facial and axillary hair
- Deepening of voice
- First ejaculation(nocternal emissions)
Sequence CONT’D
Girls
• Breast begins to develop followed by:
• Development of uterus, labia and vagina
• Enlargement of hips, breast and pelvis
• Pubic hair
• Axillary hair
• Menarche-first menstruation
Play Development
Age characteristics
• Exploratory-(holding toys: age 0-1)
• Toys as adult tools-(imitation: age 1-7)
• Games and hobbies(age 8-12)
Play CONT’D
Social Characteristics
• Solitary play(infancy) -alone, but enjoys
presence of others, interest centered on own
activity
• Parallel play (toddler) –plays alongside, not
with another, but can occur in other age
groups
Play CONT’D
• Associative play (preschool) - no group goal;
often follows a leader
• Cooperative play (School age) -organized,
rules, leader/follower relationship established
Screening Tests
• Denver II-evaluates children from birth to 6yrs
in 4 skill area: personal-social, fine motor,
language, gross motor
• Standford-Binet
• IQ
Physical Development and
Psychological Development
• Body build and personality
• Body build and socialization:
i. Goals and needs
ii. Type of groups we join
iii. How others react to us
• Body build and self satisfaction
Cognitive Development
Piaget
• Chdn pass through distinct stages in intellectual
development
• Same stages in the same order
• Chdn and adults are diff in terms of thinking
• Chdn endowed with a structure of schema and
scheming
• Basic unit of knowledge or building block of
intellectual development
Cognitive CONT’D
• Intellect develops or grows in two complimentary
processes
• Assimilation- the use of old ideas or existing
cognitive structures to deal with new situations:
assimilate the new object into existing schemas
• Accommodation- modification of old ideas or
creation of new ones to deal with new
experiences: existing ideas are modified to be
used to solve new problems
Stages
Sensorimotor-(0-2)
• Use senses and motor activities
• Intellectual development is non-verbal
• Schema present at birth are for survival and
adaptation e.g. grasping, sucking
• Forms schemas on objects present
Sensorimotor CONT’D
• Cannot deal with abstracts or mental
representation of objects/activities
• Do not think-just behave
• This stage end when they begin to have object
permanence
Stages CONT’D
Pre-operational(2-7)
• Do not understand logical operations
• Ability to think is symbolical and language
• Thinking is intuitive
• Make guesses(2nd stage)
• Not able to differentiate b/n mental pictures and
reality
• Dominant by evidence of their eyes
• Do not understand reversibility
• Focus on one dimension, most salient
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Imaginative play-new meanings are attached to objects
• Deferred imitation-recreats components of parental
behavior long after they were first observed
• Learning, perception and memory are present at this
stage
• Behave in an intelligent manner
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Confuse words with objects-preocupied with name
calling
• Transductive reasoning-makes no distinction between
general and particular
• Phenomenalistic Causality-thinking that there is a
causal relationship b/n two thgs that happens to occur
together
• Animism-Inanimate world is alive
Pre-operational CONT’D
• Purposivism-everything has a purpose
• Egocentrism-self centered-stubborn
• Lack of conservation-amount of a substance
remains the same irrespective of changes in
shape
Why do Pre-operation Children fail to
Conserve
• Their thinking is irreversible
• Centration-thoughts and thinking are centered
• Stasis-static and fragmented
• Can not form stable images in their head-finger
counting
• Cannot direct you to a place but can lead you there
Stages CONT’D
Concrete operational(7-11)
• Develop ability to conserve numbers and matter
• Thoughts include concept of time, space and
number
• Simple logic and simple mental imagination
• Sort objects-fruits, vegetables, tools, cars
• See and understand
• Can not perform abstract operations-freedom,
and justice
• They acquire universal reversibility
Concrete CONT’D
• Dynamism-act of transfering one object to
another
• There is decentralization
• They can perform problems on things that are
present
• Cannot think hypothetically
Stages CONT’D
Formal operation(11 and above)
• Thinking is abstract
• Think and reason abt thgs not present
• Think hypothetically, logically
• Weigh diff alternatives
• Make predictions of the future
Formal CONT’D
• Question social institutions and policies
• Understand issues of love, morality, law, politics,
religion
• Strongly linked with school attendance
• Western world- about half of the people reach formal
operation
• Reflective thoughts
Erickson’S Psychosocial Stages
• Personality is shaped more by society, culture
and other people
• He describe 8 stages of developmental stages
• People face new social situations
• Encounter new problems called psychosocial
crisis
Erickson CONT’D
• Conflict b/n personal impulses and the social
world
• These conflicts are resolved either negatively
or positively
Infancy(0-1)-Trust vrs Mistrust
• Sense of trust-depends on how caring is done
• Child feels secure and believes the world is
safe
• If baby care is haphazard, unpredictable and
harsh
• Child develops mistrust
Toddlerhood(1-3)Autonomy Vrs Shame
&Doubt
• Exhibit control over the environment
• Try out new things-develop a sense of
autonomy
• Some parents are over protective
• Chdn develop shame and doubt about their
capabilities and abilities
Preschool Age(3-6)-Initiative Vrs Guilt
• Takes initiative in planning, organizing and
executing it
• There is a sense of purpose
• They are curious
• If parents encourage them initiative develops but
if they criticize then guilt develops
Late Childhood(6-12)Industry Vrs
Inferiority
• Productive to meet challenges or new
situations
• Try to help parents at home
• Need is to do something worthwhile
• Praise and encourage-industrious
• Ridicule-inferior and scared
Adolescence(12-20)-Identity Vrs Role
Confusion
• Individual defines self in relation to the society
• Who am I?
• If they get right social conditions-identity
• If conditions are limited- identity crisis
Moral Development
Rules and conventions in interpersonal interactions
3 related issues needs to be understood:
1. Cognition in children
2. Children’s behavior in moral circumstances
3. Child’s feelings about moral matters
Moral CONT’D
• Children think in two ways
• It also depends on the level of maturity
1. Heteronomous morality(4-7)- judge by
considering consequences of behaviour
-Does not consider the intentions of others
-Don’t think rules and conventions can be
altered
Moral CONT’D
Autonomous Morality(7-10)• Rules are made by humans
• Can be modified when not convenient
• Begin to consider the actors intentions
• Rules are socially convenient at a particular time
• Develops sophisticated thinking patterns
• Acquire thru give and take interactions
• Rules are handed down in an authoritarian
manner
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
• Goes thru a series of stages
• Based on three levels with each level having two stages
• Chdn acquire a body of standards and principles as
they grow
• Controlled externally
• They become internalized and forms morality
Level 1-Preconventional
• No Internalization of moral values
• Moral reason controlled by external values,
rewards or punishment
Stage 1-Punishment and Obedience-
Moral reasoning based on punishment
Obey adults because they don’t want punishment
Level 1 CONT’D
Stage 2- Individualism and Purpose
• Rewards and self interest
• Obey when is in their interest
Level 2-Conventional Reasoning
• Abide and obey rules
• Rules and regulations of others eg. schools,
church, society
Stage 3-Interpersonal Norms
• Morality is being trustworthy
• Caring and being loyal to others
Level 2 CONT’D
Stage 4- Social System Morality
• Begin to acquire social norms, justice, duties
and responsibilities
• Laws are for effective social organization
• Prevents chaos
Level 3-Post Conventional
• Morality is completely internalized
• Based on personal standards
• Universal principles of equality, justice and
respect for others
• Individual rights can override society
Level 3 CONT’D
Stage 5-Community rights vrs Individual rights
• Morality can vary from person to person
• Law can be changed when no longer useful or
suitable
• Issues of justice and liberty are more important
than law
Level 3 CONT’D
Stage 6- Universal ethical principles
• Universal human rights
• Person always follows his/her conscience
when in a fix or dilemma