Developmental Psychology:
Children and Adolescents
TOPIC 5
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
2
Cognitive Development….
 Refers to
 Internal process and the product of the mind
 leading to knowledge development
 Covers a wide aspects of mental activities:
 Memorizing
 Categorizing & simbolizing
 Problem solving &creativity
 Inventions
 Dreaming &fantasizing
 Reading & Writing
 Language acquisition etc
3
Cognitive Development involves:
 Changes in thinking (logic)
 Language acquisition
 The process of how human receive, store and
remember information (knowledge) from their
environment.
4
Intellectual Development :
 How human relate the knowledge they receive and
applied it to their everyday lives.
 How the information from the environment
Receive
 Stored
 Re-use
 Stressed on individual
 Level of understanding & use of knowledge

5
Piaget Cognitive theory
 Focus on the
 Function and the reaction of the mind  to the
environment
 According to Piaget:
 Human being can think and are rational
 The thinking ability of a child is strong and
inquisitive :
 Always interact with their environment 
consistent to their understanding and cognitive
ability.
 Piaget argued that children have schemas.
6
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory :
 SCHEMA is a/an…
 cognitive structure  built to assist individual to understand
their past experiences.
 Organized ways of making sense of experience
 Child’s schemas change with age involved the modification of
intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand its world
 Action-based (motor patterns) at first
 Later move to a mental (thinking) level
 Thus, Schemas are…
 organized patterns of thought or behavior  assist in making
sense of experience
7
How Cognitive Changes Takes Place?
 Through the process of: ADAPTATION
 ORGANIZATION.
 A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on:
 How a child response to an event that occurs in their
environment.
 The effect of these event on their development.
 Schemas developed by children must be able to
handle new information and situations
 Schema can be built based on adaptation process
 Adaptationis the process of building schemes
through direct interaction with the environment. 8
 According to Piaget, adaptation can be further divided into two
intellectual processes:
 Assimilation:Involves interpreting new information in light of
an old (existing) schema. E.g: All 4-legged animals are viewed
as a “dog”
 Accommodation:Process by which old schemas are created or
modified to fit new situations. E.g.: A horse is not a “dog”

Equilibrium exist when children are not changing
very much and they are in a steady, comfortable
cognitive state  Assimilation is used more than
accommodation.

Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive discomfort,
that occurs during times of rapid change 
Accommodationis used more than assimilation
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How Cognitive Changes Takes Place?
 Organization is an internal process of arranging
and linking together schemas to form an
interconnected cognitive system.
 Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium when
they become part of a broad network of structures
that can be jointly applied to the surrounding
world.
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Piaget’s Theory on The Level of Cognitive
Development
Stages of Cognitive development:
Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)
2. Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)
3. Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)
4. Formal Operation (12 and above)
1.
11
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Sensorimotor Stage
 Birth to 2 years
 Building schemes through sensory
and motor exploration
 Circular reactions
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Stage 1: Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)
 Piaget based this stage on his observation of his children.
 Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR):
 CR the means by which infants explore the
environment and build schemas by trying to repeat
chance events caused by their own motor activity.
 Reactions are first centered on infant’s own body
later change to manipulating objects  then to produce
effects in the environment.
 8-12 mths  Concept of Object permanencedevelop

Object permanence, the realization that an
object/person continues to exist when out of sight.
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Deferred Imitation
 Piaget: Develops about 18 months
 Newer research:
 Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation
 6 – 9 months – copy actions with objects
 12 – 14 months – imitate rationally
 18 months – imitate intended,
but not completed, actions
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Stage 2: The Preoperational Child
(2-7 yrs old)
 Cognitive Advances

Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in the use
of *symbolic thought, or representational ability, which
first emerges at the end of the sensorimotor stage

An understanding of symbolism comes only gradually
usually after age
 Growing understanding of space, causality, identities,
categorization, and number
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Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
 Gains in Mental Representation
 Make-believe Play
 Dual Representation
 Limitations in Thought — Cannot Perform Mental
Operations
 Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking
 Conservation
 Hierarchical Classification
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Development of Make-Believe Play …..
 With age, make-believe gradually
becomes:
 More detached from real-life
conditions
 Less self-centered
 More complex
 Sociodramatic Play
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Dual Representation
 Viewing a symbolic object as both an
object and a symbol
 Mastered around age 3
 Adult teaching can help
 Provide lots of maps, photos,
drawings, make-believe playthings,
etc.
 Point out similarities to real world
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Animistic Thinking
 Belief that inanimate objects
have lifelike qualities
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Immature Aspects Of Preoperational
Thoughts…..
 Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect
 Attribute life to inanimate objects = animism
 Failure to understand conservation: two things remain
equal if their appearance changes but nothing is added or
taken away


Egocentrism : Center so much on their own point of
view that they cannot take in another's
Conservation: Understanding that the basic properties
of an object are constant even if the object changes shape
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Egocentrism
 Egocentrism refers to a cognitive
view in which a child understands
the world to have only their view
(has great difficulty in
understanding the views of others)
 E.g: Piaget’s three-mountain
task. A preoperational child is
unable to describe the
“mountains” from the doll’s point
of view - an indication of
egocentrism
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Limits on Conservation
 CentrationF
ocus on one
aspect and
neglect others
 Irreversibility
Cannot
mentally
reverse a set of
steps
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Educational Principles
Derived from Piaget’s Theory
 Discovery learning
 Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn
 Developmentally appropriate practice
 Acceptance of individual differences
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26
Achievements of a Concrete
Operational Stage Child
 Conservation
 Decentration
 Reversibility
 Classification/ categorization
 Seriation
 Transitive inference
 Spatial Reasoning
 Directions
 Maps
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Understand the concept of conservation
Understand the principleof identityCategorisation/
classification
o Transitive inference - able to recognize a relationship
between two objects by knowing the relationship between
them and a third object.
o Class inclusion - able to see the relationship between a
whole and its parts.
o Children now use inductive reasoning. Starting with
observations about particular members of a class of
people, animals, objects, or events, then draw general
conclusions about the class as a whole.
They understandseriation can arrange objects in a series
based on one or more dimensions, such as weight (lightest to
heaviest) or color
Understanding of spatial relationships/ reasoning better
Children's thinking at this stage is so concrete
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Limitations of Concrete Operational
Thought….
 Operations work best with objects that are
concrete
 Problems with abstract ideas
 Horizontal décalage
 Master concrete operational tasks gradually
(development within a stage i.e. a step-by step
fashion, not all at once)

E.g, they usually grasp conservation problem in a
certain order first: first number  then length, mass
& liquid  finally area & weight
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Formal Operation
 Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation
 Develop the capacity forabstract thought a new,






more flexible way to manipulate information
Can use symbols more extensively
Can understand metaphor and allegory
Can imagine possibilities and can form and test
hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning)
Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise
in specific fields
Higher gain of information-processing capacity;
Growth in metacognition awareness and
monitoring of one's own mental processes and
strategies.
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INTELLIGENCE
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IQ Tests




Group Tests
Allow testing of large groups
Require little training to
administer
Useful for instructional planning
Identify students who need
individual testing
Individually-Administered
Tests
 Examiners need training &
experience
 Provide insights about
accuracy of score
 Identify highly intelligent and
children with learning problems
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Examples of IQ test
 Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½ yrs)
o Mental, motor, social scale
 Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult)
o
General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual, short term memory
scale
 Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC III)
 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence WPPSI-R)
 6-16 yrs (WISC)
o Verbal & performance scale
 Kaufman Battery of Assessment
o Information processing
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Calculating IQ
 Formula
* MA/CA x 100 = IQ
Ma = mental age
CA = Chronological age
 Example
 Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a mental age of 12 years old.
Thus Hasif have an IQ of 120, ie.
12/10 x 100 = 120
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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
 Linguistic
 Logico-mathematical
 Musical
 Spatial
 Bodily-kinesthetic
 Naturalist
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
4.38
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Educ
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Class
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Upda
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The Child in School
 Children with Learning Problems
 Mental retardation =significantly subnormal cognitive
functioning
 Dyslexia=developmental reading disorder in which reading
achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ
or age.
 Learning disabilities =disorders that interfere with school
achievementperformance substantially lower than
expected.
 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with or
without hyperactivity
ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with heritability approaching
80 percent
 ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes combined with
behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills, and special
classroom placement

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Gifted and Talented Children
 Gifted
 Exceptional intellectual strength

The traditional criterion of giftedness is
high general intelligence, as shown by an
 Usually measured by high IQ (score
of 130 or higher)
 Talented
 Outstanding performance in a
specific field
 Measured by divergent thinking
and creativity
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
Gifted Children:

A classic longitudinal study of gifted children began in 1921, by
Lewis M. Terman:



these children were taller, healthier, better coordinated,
better adjusted, and more popular than the average child
Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational superiority has
held up for nearly eighty years
Creativity=ability to see things in a new light


divergent thinking
enrichment or acceleration classes for both gifted and creative
children
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Is Language Development Important?
 Language Development is important because:
Through language  children interact
 Language development  very much related to
intellectual development
 Through language  children are able to
progress in other developmental domain.
 Language is a law of grammar and semantic that
makes conversation more meaningful.
 Covers ways of communication  where
thoughts and emotions are being expressed 
in order to convey message/meaning to others

Forms of communication
 Writing
 Conversation (verbal)
 Sign Language
 Body/hand gestures
 Facial expression
Language can be divided into:
 Non-verbal (Understanding)
◦ Hand/body gestures
◦ Symbolic understanding
◦ Understand what others said (Baby understand what being said although
he’s still not able to talk yet)
 Verbal
◦ Sound/Words are being said to convey message/ meaning  involves the
coordination of articulation organs (voice box, trachea, tongue, cheek, lips
& palate)
◦ Understanding of meaning and sound being said occurs simultaneously
Stages of language development in
children
 Pre-linguistic speech (pre-conversation)
 Linguistic speech (conversation)
Pre-linguistic speech (pre-conversation)
 Baby’s ability to understand and convey a message, thou’ he/she is not
able to talk yet
 Crying
 Cooing & Babbling
Cooing (6-8 mths) – mostly vowels sound (aaaa, uuuuu, oooo….)
 Babbling (9-18 mths) – comprising of consonant and vowel
sounds (BA, MA, ga, pa…)
 Becoming a communicator

 Infant & adult follow each other’s gaze
 This will speed up language development
 Simple infant game  pat-a- cake/ peekaboo demonstrate conventional
turn taking.
 At the end of the first year  infants use preverbal gestures to influence the
behavior of others.
 Body Gestures
Protodeclarative action
 Protoimperative action
 Facial expressions convey message of emotions

Early Language development
 First word: One-word utterance - (18-24 mths)
 Limited in both vowels & consonant – single word (BALL, DAD, HIT….)
Children first words usually refer to important people, objects that
move, familiar actions or outcomes of familiar actions.
 Emotions also influence early word learning.
 Two-word Utterance phase and telegraphic speech (24-30 mths)
 Simple sentence (BAD DOG, Want food, Me hungry…).
 Young toddlers add words to their vocabularies slowly (1-3 words a
month) but after this stage a spurt of vocabularies occurs10-20 new
words a week.
 Telegraphic speech occurs  where in the 2 words utterance phase
toddlers will leave out smaller and less important words.
 Basic adult sentence structure (above 30 mths) – building sentence –
presence of grammatical and functional structure, and continuing
vocabulary acquisition.

Linguistic speech (conversation)
 The physical development & connection of the
sound of language.
 4 component in linguistic development:
 Phonological development
 Semantic development
 Grammar development
 Pragmatic development
Phonological development
 Understanding & pronouncing words
 Vocabulary
 Fast mappingabsorb the meaning of a new word after hearing
it only once or twice in conversation
 The use of metaphor, a figure of speech in which a word or
phrase that usually designates one thing is applied to another,
becomes increasingly common
 A child learn to pronounce  through imitation (repetitive)
 Eg. TV (ivi), Susu (cu), Minum (num), tumpah (pah)
 A deaf child  normally have problem in speaking
Semantic development
 A child learn the meaning of words  then combine
the words
 A child will then try to relate the meaning of certain
words with it’s sound.
 Addition to his/her vocabulary.
Grammar development
 Children learn about grammar  add words to make simple
sentences.
 2 phase:
 The development of simple sentences from basic words.
 The development of complex sentences
 Children start asking questions  thinking &
understanding process is very rapid.
 Intelligent children  use complex and sophisticated
sentences/words
 As age increases  familiarity with words and sentences
increases  able to use, different form of sentences.
Pragmatic development
 Children learn about the aim and how certain words
and sentences are being used in a conversation  use
language efficiently in social context.
 Pragmatics the practical knowledge of how to use
language to communicate.
 Social speech
 Speech intended to be understood by a listener
 Private Speech
 Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others
 Normal and common in childhood
Language Development Theory
 Language development relates to two theories in particular.
• Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura
 • Nativism/ Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky
Social cognitive theory
 Bandura
 Emphasize that behavior, environment and cognition as
the key factors in language development
 Language is learned and is influenced strongly by
environmental experiences  through observational
learning/modelling
 In the classroom, teachers model the type of work they
want their children to produce  from this children learn
what to do and how to do it.
Nativism/ Language Acquisition Device
 According to Chomsky
 Humans are biologically pre wired to learn language at a certain time and
in a certain way.
 Human brain are pre-programmed  every normal person are able to talk
and understand language.
 All children are born with ‘a language acquisition device (LAD), a
biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain language
categories, such as phonology, syntax and semantics’
 LAD depend on cells in the brain (cerebrum cortex)
 Through LAD children can analyzed language that they hear and able to
construct a proper grammar.
 Supporters of the LAD say that all children will learn some form of language by
a certain age despite how much language input they have received.
Language Development
 Influences on Language Development
 Maturation of the Brain: Cortical regions associated with
language do not fully mature until late preschool years or
later
 Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe, controls
language production.
 Wernicke’s area, located in the temporal lobe, controls
language comprehension.
Language Development
 Influences on Language Development
 Babies learn by listening to what adults say--parents with
lower incomes, educational and occupational levels tend to
spend less time talking with their children in positive ways
 Child-directed speech=speak slowly in a high-pitched voice
with exaggerated ups and downs, simple speech, exaggerate
vowel sounds, use short words and sentences
Language Development
 Preparing For Literacy: The Benefits of Reading Aloud
 Opportunities for emotional intimacy and parent-child
communication
 Children who are read to oftenbetter language skills at
ages 2½, 4½, and 5 and better reading comprehension at
age 7
Language Development in Middle childhood

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax
 As vocabulary grows during the school years, children use
increasingly precise verbs to describe an action, i.e.
hitting, slapping
 Pragmatics: Knowledge about Communication
 Practical use of language to communicate including
conversational and narrative skills
Language and Literacy

Literacy=Learning to read and write

Most children learn to read phonetically by sounding out
words (a, e, i, o, u).




“Rabit it caret” (Rabbit eat carrot)
“Mami is preti” (Mummy is pretty)
“I luvu” (I love you)
Most effective way to teach reading, is to develop strong
phonetic skills plus improving fluency and
comprehension.
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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamics
 Psychosexual stages
(S. Freud)
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
 Psychosocial
 (E. Erickson)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust Vs Mistrust
Autonomy Vs Shame
Initiative Vs Guilt
Industry Vs Inferiority
Identity Vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy Vs Isolation
Generativity Vs Stagnation
Integrity Vs Despair
PSYCHODYNAMIC STAGES
Age
Erikson’s Stage
Freud’s Stage
First Year
Basic Trust
vs
Mistrust
Oral
Second
Year
Autonomy
vs
Shame and Doubt
Anal
Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Integrity vs Despair
Generativity vs Stagnation
Intimacy vs Isolation
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
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Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety
 STRANGER ANXIETY





the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering
an unfamiliar person.
Appears in the second half of the first year.
Infants with more experience with strangers tend to show
less anxiety.
Infants tend to show less anxiety with female strangers and
other children than males.
The same cognitive advances that allow infants to respond so
positively to those with whom they are familiar also means they are
able to recognize people who are unfamiliar.
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 SEPARATION ANXIETY
.  is the distress displayed by infants when a customary
care provider departs
 Usually begins about 8 or 9 months and peaks at 14 months
 Starts slightly later than stranger anxiety
 Largely attributable to the same cognitive skills as stranger
anxiety.
 Both stranger & separation anxiety represent important
social progress! They reflect cognitive advances in the
infant, and growing emotional and social bonds!
69
More about understanding emotion…
Social referencing: Feeling what others feel
SOCIAL REFERENCING is the intentional search for
information to help explain the meaning of
uncertain circumstances and events
(modeling others, mimicking expressions)
 First occurs in infants at about 8-9 months.
 Infants make particular use of facial expressions in
their social referencing.
 Social referencing is most likely to occur in
uncertain and ambiguous situations.
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The Development of Self in Infancy



The roots of SELF-AWARENESS, knowledge of
self, begin to grow around 12 months.
By age two, infants demonstrate EMPATHY, an
emotional response that corresponds to the
feelings of another person.
By age two, children can "pretend".
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•
ATTACHMENT

the positive emotional bond that develops
between a child and a particular individual.
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ATTACHMENT




The earliest work on humans was carried out by John
Bowlby(Attachment theory) who suggested that
attachment had a biological basis.
Bowlby viewed attachment as based on infant's needs for
safety and security (especially from the mother)
Attachment viewed as critical for allowing the infant to
explore the world
Having a strong, firm attachment provides a safe base
from which the child can gain independence.
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STRANGE SITUATION STUDY
• Based on Bowlby's work, Mary Ainsworth
developed the AINSWORTH STRANGE
SITUATION, a sequence of 8 staged
episodes that illustrate the strength of
attachment between a child and (typically) his
or her mother.
74
The 8 staged episodes of the
AINSWORTH STRANGE SITUATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Mother & baby enter an unfamiliar room
Mother sits, letting baby explore
Adult stranger enters room can converses with mom
and then baby
Mother exits the room, leaving baby with stranger
Mom returns; greets and comforts baby and stranger
leaves
Mom departs leaving baby alone
Stranger returns
Mother returns and stranger leaves
75
Infants’ reactions to the strange situation vary
considerably, depending on the nature of attachment with
mother…
a.
2/3 are SECURELY ATTACHED CHILDREN, who use
mother as a safe base, at ease as long as she is
present, exploring when they can see her, upset
when she leaves, and go to her when she returns.
a.
20 % are labeled AVOIDANT CHILDREN who do not
seek proximity to the mother; after she leaves they
seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are
angered by her behavior.
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(the strange situation technique, Mary Ainsworth,
nature of attachment , continued)


About 12 % are AMBIVALENT CHILDREN who display
a combination of positive and negative reactions to
their mothers; they show great distress when the
mother leaves, but upon her return they may
simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and
kick her.
A recent expansion of Ainsworth's work suggests a
fourth category: DISORGANIZED-DISORIENTED
CHILDREN who show inconsistent, often
contradictory behavior, such as approaching the
mother when she returns but not looking at her; they
may be the least securely attached children of all.
77
Attachment & Later
Development
 Infant attachment may have significant consequences
for relationships at later stages in life.
 Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in:
 Preschool
 Middle childhood
 Continuity of care giving may link infant attachment
and later development.
 But not all children who are not securely attached as
infants experience difficulties later in life; some
research suggests that those who had avoidant and
ambivalent attachment do quite well later in life.
Factors that Affect
Attachment Security
 Opportunity for attachment
 Quality of caregiving
 Interactional synchrony
 Infant characteristics
 Family circumstances
 Parents’ internal working models
Self-Control




Ability to resist impulses
Emerges around 18 months
Improves through early childhood
Individual differences are lasting:
 Gender
 Sensitive caregiving
Compliance
 Understanding and obeying caregivers’
wishes and standards
 Emerges between 12 and 18 months
 Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes
not complying
 Warm, sensitive caregiving increases
compliance
Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance
and Self-Control







Respond with sensitivity and support
Give advance notice of change in activities
Offer many prompts and reminders
Reinforce self-controlled behavior
Encourage sustained attention
Support language development
Increase rules gradually
TEMPERAMENT
 TEMPERAMENTis the patterns of arousal and
emotionality that are consistent and enduring
characteristics of an individual.
 Temperament refers to how children behave.
 Temperamental differences among infants appear from
the time of birth.
 Temperament shows stability from infancy through
adolescence
83
Temperament
(Alexander, Thomas & Chess)



EASY BABIEShave a positive disposition; their body functions
operate regularly and they are adaptable.
DIFFICULT BABIEShave negative moods and are slow to
adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation,
they tend to withdraw.
SLOW-TO-WARM-UP BABIESare inactive, showing relatively
calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally
negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting
slowly.
84
Genetics and Environment
in Temperament
Responsible
Genetic
Influences
for about half of individual
differences
Ethnicity, gender
Cultural
Environmental
Influences
caregiving styles
Boys & girls treated differently
Parents emphasize sibling differences
Combines
Goodness
Of Fit
genetics and environment
Differences among Infants Personality
Development and Uniqueness

The origins of PERSONALITY (the sum total of
the enduring characteristics that differentiate one
individual from another) begin in infancy
86
Personality Development and Uniqueness, continued
Erik Erikson's THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT considers how individuals come to
understand themselves and the meaning of others - and
their own - behavior.
The theory suggests that developmental change occurs
throughout the life span in 8 distinct stages



The first stage occurs in infancy, our current focus
87
Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development
Infancy marks the time of the TRUST-VERSUS-MISTRUST
STAGE (birth to 18 months) during which infants develop a
sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well
their needs are met by their caretakers.
 From around 18 months to 3 years infants enter the
AUTONOMY-VERSUS-SHAME-AND-DOUBT STAGE during
which Erikson believed toddlers develop either
independence and autonomy (if they are allowed the
freedom to explore) or shame and doubt (if they are
restricted and overprotected).
Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infant's
experiences

88
89
Self Concept in the School Years:
Thinking About the Self
 During the preschool period, children
wonder about the nature of self
 The way they answer the question “Who am
I?” at this stage may affect their whole life!
90
(Self concept in the preschool years, cont…)



Preschoolers begin to form their SELF-CONCEPT
(their identity, or their set of beliefs about what one is
like as an individual).
Youngsters typically overestimate their skills and
knowledge (their self concepts are NOT necessarily
accurate).
They also begin to develop a view of self that
reflects the way their particular culture considers the
self.
91
Psychosocial Development
 According to Erikson’s preschoolers have already passed
through a couple of Developmental stages, & to pass through
the stages, a conflict/crisismust be resolved at each stage
 Preschoolers experience the INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT STAGE,
the period during which children experience conflict between
independence of action and sometimes negative results of that
action.
92
The Initiative Vs Guilt Stage
 Conflict occurs between the desire to become more
independent and autonomous and the guilt that may
occur.
 Preschoolers with supportive parents =independent &
autonomous
 Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective parents =
shame & self-doubt
 The foundational concept of this stage is that children
become aware that they are people too! They begin to
make decisions and shape the kind of person they are
to become!
93
(Preschool Social Life…)
Some children are more readily liked by their peers than others.






Qualities associated with
popularity
physical attractiveness
being outgoing
being sociable
speaking more
smiling more
having a greater understanding
of others‘ emotions





Qualities associated with
disliked children
more likely to be aggressive
More disruptive,
impose themselves on their
peers
less cooperative
do not take turns.
94
Playing by the Rules: How Play Affects Social & Personality
Development
Categorizing play:

Three year olds typically engage in FUNCTIONAL
PLAYwhich involves simple, repetitive activities, that is, doing
something for the sake of being active.
(playing with dolls, skipping, jumping rope, etc)

By age 4, children typically engage in CONSTRUCTIVE
PLAY which involves manipulating objects to produce or build
something (legos, puzzles, etc.)

Constructive play allows children to test developing
cognitive skills.

Constructive play allows children to practice motor skills.

Constructive play allows children to problem solve.

Constructive play allows children to learn to cooperate
95
TYPES of PLAY (Parten, 1932)
 Non Social Play - is where a child only observe others play,





i.e. did not involve in the play
Solitary play - A child play with his/her toys only, i.e. no
contact with other children even though other children is
around.
Onlooker play - occurs when children simply watch others play
but do not actually participate themselves
Parallel play - is when children play with similar toys, in a
similar manner, but do not interact with each other.
Associative play- is when children play together in the same
activities/ game and communicate with each other. But without
specific task/aim.
Cooperative play- occurs when children play together and
have aim and specific task organize play and each have
their own role to play.
96
More about the effects of play on social and
personality development…
Associative and cooperative play generally do not emerge
until the end of the preschool years.
The nature of a child's play is influenced by their social
experiences.



Children with preschool experience engage in more social behaviors
earlier (associative & cooperative play, etc.)
97
Discipline: Teaching Preschoolers Desired Behaviors
PARENTING
 Diana Baumrind (1980) notes 3 major types of parenting or
patterns of discipline:
AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS
 PERMISSIVE PARENTS
 AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS

98


Authoritarian Parents are controlling, punitive, rigid, & cold, &
whose word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from
their children & do not tolerate expressions of disagreement..
Permissive Parents provide lax & inconsistent feedback and
require little of their children.
 2 types of permissive parents:
Permissive-indifferent parents are usually uninvolved in their children's
lives.

Their children tend to be dependent and moody.

Their children also tend to have low social skills and low selfcontrol
Permissive-indulgentparents are more involved with their children, but
they place little or no limits or control on their behavior.

Their children typically show low control and low social skills.

However, these children tend to feel that they are especially
privileged.

Authoritative Parents are firm, setting clear & consistent limits,
but try to reason with their children giving explanations for why they
should behave in a particular way.
99
Effect of parenting style on children…..
Children of authoritative parents tend to fare best: they are
independent, friendly with their peers, self-assertive, and
cooperative parents are not always consistent in their parenting
or discipline styles.
Children whose parents engage in aspects of the authoritative
style related to supportive parenting



Supportive parenting encompasses parental warmth, proactive
teaching, calm discussion during disciplinary episodes, and interest and
involvement in children's peer activities show better adjustment and are
protected from the consequences of later adversity.
100
Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect
cultural perspectives about the nature of children and the role of
the parents.



Childrearing practices in Eastern societies are more likely to involve
strict control. Such control is seen as a measure of parents‘
involvement in and concern for the welfare of their children.
In Western societies, and especially in the United States, parents are
more often advised to use authoritative methods.
However  No one parenting style is likely to be
successful or universally accepted! Cultural context
must be taken into consideration
101
102
Social & Personality Development: Understanding
Oneself in Middle Childhood
 Children in middle childhood are struggling to
understand who they are, and continue to explore
answers to the question “Who am I?”
 The Developing Self…….
~ During middle childhood, children begin to view
themselves less in terms of external physical attributes
and more in terms of psychological traits.
 Children realize they are good at some things and not so good
at others.
 Their self-concepts become divided into personal and
academic spheres…
103
Children use SOCIAL COMPARISON, comparing themselves to
the abilities, expertise, and opinions of others.
Festinger proposed that when objective measures are absent,
people rely on social reality to evaluate themselves
(understanding that comes from studying how others act, think,
feel, and view the world).
Children look to others who are similar to themselves.
Sometimes children make downward social comparisons with
others who are obviously less competent or successful to raise
or protect their self-esteem.
This explains why some students in elementary school have
very high self esteem in spite of the fact that are in special
education classes






Big fish in a small pond
104
Erikson’s :Industry vs Inferiority
 According to Erik Erikson, middle childhood
encompasses the INDUSTRY-VERSUSINFERIORITY STAGE, the period from ages 6
to 12 characterized by a focus on efforts to
attain competence in meeting the
challenges presented by parents, peers,
school, and the other complexities of the
modern world.
105
Industry vs Inferiority….
 Success in this stage is evidenced by feelings of
mastery, proficiency, and confidence.
 Difficulties lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy,
and to withdrawal from academics and socialization
with peers
 Attaining a sense of industry during middle childhood
has lasting consequences!
 High levels of childhood industry associated with adult
success (more so than intelligence and family background!)
106
Self esteem: Evaluating the self


Children evaluate themselves in terms of physical and psychological
characteristics, but they also think of themselves as being good or
bad (involves emotions)
SELF-ESTEEM, an individual's overall and specific positive and
negative self-evaluation, develops in important ways during middle
childhood.
107
Self esteem develops in important ways during middle
childhood…




Children increasingly compare themselves to
others.
Children are developing their own internal
standards.
Self-esteem, for most children, increases during
middle childhood.
Children with low self-esteem may become
enmeshed in a cycle of failure that is difficult to
break.
108
A cycle of Low Self-Esteem
If a child has low self-esteem
and expects to do poorly on a
test, she may experience
anxiety and not do as well,
which confirms the negative
self view. Parents can break
this cycle through a warm and
supportive style.
109
Relationships in Middle Childhood: Building
Friendships
 Children’s development is seriously effected by
the formation of friendships in middle childhood
~~ Friendships influence children's development in
several ways.
110
The influence of friendships on children’s development
 Friends provide information about the world and other
people.
 Friends provide emotional support and help kids to handle
stress.
 Friends teach children how to manage and control their
emotions.
 Friends teach about communication with others.
 Friends foster intellectual growth.
 Friends allow children to practice relationship skills
111
During the middle childhood period, children’s
ideas about friendship undergo changes…
According to developmental psychologist William
Damon, children's friendships go through three
stages:
Stage 1 –ages 4-7
Stage 2- ages 8-10
Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
112
Damon’s 3 stages of friendship
 Stage 1 – [ages 4-7]
 Children see friends as like themselves.
 Children see friends as people to share toys and activities with.
 Children do not take into account personal traits.
 Stage 2 - ages 8-10.
 Children now begin to take other's personal qualities and traits into
consideration.
 Friends are viewed in terms of the kinds of rewards they provide.
 Friendships are based on mutual trust.
 Stage 3 - ages 11-15.
 Friendships become based on intimacy and loyalty.
 Friendships involve mutual disclosure and exclusivity.
 Children also develop clear ideas about the behaviors they seek in
friends…
113
What makes a child popular during middle childhood?
 They are helpful and cooperative. Popular children have SOCIAL
COMPETENCE, the collection of individual social skills that permit
individuals to perform successfully in social settings.
 Common characteristics of popular children:





They have a good sense of humor.
They have good emotional understanding.
They ask for help when necessary.
They are not overly reliant on others.
They can adapt to social situations.
114
Some characteristics of unpopular
children





Unpopular children lack social competence.
They may act immature or inappropriately
silly.
They may be overly aggressive and
overbearing.
They may be withdrawn or shy.
They may be unattractive, handicapped,
obese, or slow academically.
115
What is Moral Development?
 From a Latin word “Moralis”
 A behavior conform to the community norms
 Acceptable by the society
 Awareness about


What is good/bad
What is right/wrong
The word moral covers positive attitude
and attribute:










trustworthy
fair
communityness
polite
unselfish
free
respect others
punctual
cooperate
thankful
 tolerable
 Good natured
 rational
 independent
 loving
 brave
 diligent
 hygienic
 moderate
 Moral development refers to .....
 Values acquirement and awareness about what is right or
wrong  based on code of ethics set by the community
 Moral definition differs (what is good/bad)  depending
on culture & community
 Example: Living together without marriage
Abortion
Sex before marriage
 A moral person
 Able to identify


Good (right) behavior , and
Bad (wrong) behavior
 A person ability to differentiate between what is good or
bad is influence by
 Their ability to understand
 intention
 Society rules and code of ethics
 Values and culture of the society
 This ability is influence by ones cognitive and
psychosocial development
3 Components of moral development
 Affective (emotion)
 Cognitive (thoughts)
 Behavior
122
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Lawrence Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are
based on the premise that:
 at birth, all humans are void of morals, ethics, and
honesty.
 Family as the first source of values and moral
development for an individual.
 One's intelligence and ability to interact with others
matures & one's patterns of moral behavior
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Kohlberg
developed a model of moral
development based on responses to
moral dilemmas.
 Kohlberg theory is based on a person
reasoning ability when faced with certain
isues  at every stages
124
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 According to Kohlberg: Moral development occurs in stages
 Moral development is universal and occurs in 3 main
stages.



Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
Stage 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Each main stage is further sub divide into 2 sub-
stage
Stages in Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
 Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
 Sub stage 2: Personal reward orientation
 Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
 Sub stage 4: Law and order orientation
 Stage 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
 Sub stage 5: Social contract orientation
 Sub stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
126
Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
 Right or wrong depend on the consequences  influence
by outside factors
 Sub stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
• Main motive  to avoid punishment (How can I avoid
punishment?)
 Sub stage 2: Personal reward orientation (Self interest
orientation)
 Childrenobey  for the reward (What's in it for me?)
127
Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL
 Must obey & follow norms/regulation  set by the society
 Children can accept other people ideas, intention & motives
Sub stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
(Interpersonal accord & conformity – Social Norms)
 What is right  what is being praised or
agreed by
the authority
Sub stage 4: Law and order orientation [Authority and
social-order maintaining orientation] -Law and order
morality
 what is right  what have been fixed by the authority,
according to the rules conducted by the authority
128
Stage 3: POST- CONVENTIONAL
 Adolescent understand the reasons behind the development
of any rules and laws from social contract  compliance by
all
Sub stage 5: Social contract orientation
• Understand the reasons behind the development of any
rules/laws
Sub stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
 Labelling what is right or wrong is based on universal
principle  formed based on respect towards everybody 
regardless of religion or race
 International acknowledgement.
129
Heinz Dilemma

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town
had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but
the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to
make. He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000 for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went
to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal
means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is
half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying,
and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make
money from it." So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets
desperate and considers breaking into the man's store to steal
the drug for his wife.
130
Heinz Dilemma

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the
drug for his wife? Why or why not?

From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what
the participant thinks that Heinz should do.

Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the
participant offers is what is significant, the form of their
response.
131
Below are some of examples of possible arguments on
the Heinz Dilemma



Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because
he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a bad
person. Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it is only worth
$200 and not how much the druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even
offered to pay for it and was not stealing anything else.
Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because
he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine
because prison is an awful place, and he would probably languish
over a jail cell more than his wife's death.
Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because
his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should
not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he
tried to do everything he could without breaking the law, you cannot
blame him.
132
Below are some of examples of possible arguments on
the Heinz Dilemma



Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine
because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal. Or: Heinz
should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed
punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is
owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law;
actions have consequences.
Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because
everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz
should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to
fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not make his
actions right.
Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine,
because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the
property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the
medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and
their lives are equally significant.
133
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 8
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
134
ADOLESCENT? WHO?
 A young person going through enormous changes
in life:
 Body & Appearances (size, proportion & shape)
 Intellectual abilities
 Adaptation to public expectation about his behavior
 Adolescence is a time of transition from childhood
to adulthood
 Aged 11 -19 years old
135
Western perspectives towards
adolescent development based on:
 Chronological
 Physiological
 Social Responsibilities
 Mental/Intellectual abilities
136
Chronological Aspect
 3 stages of adolescent development:
 Early Adolescent (11-14 years old)
 Middle Adolescent (15-17 years old)
 Late Adolescent (18-19 years old)
137
Physiological
 Focus on :
 Growth & changes (breast, body hair, voice, etc)
 Body composition (body fat, bigger body, chest/ buttock
widen, slimmer waist, etc.)
 Respiratory system
 Development of sexual functioning  maturity,
reproductive organ & functioning
 Growth Spurt
138
Social Responsibilities
 Focused on
 Intellectual abilities parallel to parents and
community expectation.
 Adolescent must be aware of his/her:
 Responsibilities as a member of his/her
community (community have specific
expectation on them)
 How to behave
139
Mental/Intellectual abilities
 Focus on:
 Adolescent thinking skills



Must be parallel to their cognitive
development
Differs from children
Abstract and more complex thinking skill
140
What physical changes do adolescents
experience?
Adolescence is a time of considerable
physical and psychological growth and
change!
ADOLESCENCEis the developmental stage
between childhood and adulthood.

The age at which adolescence begins and
ends is imprecise, partly because society is
unclear about the roles of people in this
stage (no longer children, not yet adults)
141
The Rapid Pace of Growth During Adolescence
 Extreme changes in height and weight are common
 Termed “the adolescent growth spurt”—a period of rapid
growth changes in height and weight
 The rate of growth matches the high growth rate of infancy
 On average, boys grow 4.1 inches in height each year, girls
3.5 inches
 Girls begin their growth spurts earlier (aprox. 2 years) and
complete them earlier
 By age 13, boys are taller on average
142
Puberty: The Start of Sexual Maturation

PUBERTY is the period when sexual organs
mature,beginning earlier for girls than for boys.

Girls begin puberty about 10 - 12
Boys begin at 13 or 14.

143
What triggers puberty?
No one has identified the reason that it begins when it does!




Environmental & cultural factors play a role in
age of puberty.
MENARCHE,the onset of menstruation, varies
in different parts of the world and even with
affluence levels.
More affluent, better nourished, healthier girls
start menstruation earlier.
Menarche age in the US has declined since 19th
century.
144

The development of PRIMARY SEX
CHARACTERISTICSinvolves organs and
structures of the body related to
reproduction.

SECONDARY SEX
CHARACTERISTICSinvolve the visible
signs of sexual maturity that do not
involve sex organs directly
145
Body Image: Reactions to Physical Changes in
Adolescence



Body Image involves an adolescent's own
reactions to these physical changes.
Western society's views of menarche have
become more positive than they used to be so
girls tend to have higher self-esteem and selfawareness when they begin menstruating.
Boys‘ first ejaculation is roughly equivalent to
girls‘ menarche, but it is rarely discussed (and
less anxiety provoking than menarche).
146
The Timing of Puberty

The timing of puberty is a key factor for how
adolescents react to it.
Early maturation is generally positive for boys.




Early maturing boys tend to be better at athletics, be
more popular, have more positive self-esteem, and grow
up to be more cooperative and responsible.
On the other hand, these boys also are more likely to
have school difficulties and become more involved
Early maturation is often difficult for girls.


Early maturing girls tend to be more popular but they
may not be ready to deal with dating situations.
Reactions depend on cultural norms (country and
community).
147
The Timing of Puberty (continued)

Late maturation is difficult for boys.



Smaller boys are seen as less attractive and have a
disadvantage in sports.
These difficulties often lead to declines in selfconcept which can extend into adulthood
For late maturing girls the picture is
complicated.


Late maturing girls can be overlooked and have low
social status at first.
However, when they catch up their self-esteem is high
148
Nutrition, Food & Eating Disorders During Adolescence
 ANOREXIA NERVOSA



is a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse
to eat, while denying that their behavior and
appearance, which may become skeletal, are out of the
ordinary.
This disorder primarily affects white women.
These women are often intelligent, successful,
attractive, and from affluent homes
 BULIMIAIs an eating disorder characterized by binges on large
quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through
vomiting or the use of laxatives.


A chemical imbalance results from constant vomiting
or diarrhea.
This can have serious effects, including heart failure
149
Nutrition, Food & Eating Disorders During
Adolescence ….

Eating disorders are products of both biological
and environmental causes so treatment involves
multiple approaches, i.e. Psychotherapy &
Cognitive-behavioral techniques

Dietary modifications

Stress management
150
Cognitive Development
 Mental activities
 Cognitive development
 Organisation and thinking process
 Reasoning abilities
Changes in the adolescent stage:
 Language ability
 Ability in making decision
 Memory and reasoning capacity
Criticisms of Piaget's theory and approach.




Research finds individual differences in cognitive
abilities not universal.
Some researchers suggest that cognitive
development is more continuous, less step-like
than Piaget proposed.
Piaget underestimated the skills of infants and
young children.
Piaget focused only on thinking and knowing,
missing other kinds of intelligence.
Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive
Development, continued


Information Processing Perspectives assert that one
of the key reasons that mental abilities advance
during adolescence is the growth of metacognition
METACOGNITION, the ability to think about one's
own thinking process and their ability to monitor their
cognition.
Egocentrism in Adolescent Thinking
Developmental Psychologist David Elkind argues that
the adolescent period fosters adolescent egocentrism
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ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM is a stage of self-absorption
where the world is seen only from one's own perspective.
Thus adolescents are highly critical of authority figures,
unwilling to accept criticism, and quick to find fault with
others.
Adolescent egocentrism helps explain why teens often think
they’re the focus of everyone’s attention!
Adolescent egocentrism leads to 2 distortions:
 IMAGINARY AUDIENCE,where adolescents think
they are the focus of everyone else's attention.
 Constructing elaborate scenarios about other’s
thoughts/intentions
 PERSONAL FABLES, the belief that the adolescent is
unique and exceptional and shared by no one else
 No one understands me
 Risk taking behavior
Indicator Influencing Adolescent Cognitive
Development: Early Adolescents
More complex thinking  focused more on
personal decision making (relates to home and
school environment), such as:
a. Home/school work
b. Questions rules, authority, standard in society
c. Giving opinion towards certain topic of interest 
that relates to their everyday chores/living
 Best sports/games?
 Good looking?
 Change rules ?
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How Cognitive Development During
Adolescent Can Influence Parent-child
Relationship?
 Changes during adolescent (Physical, social,
mental)  impact on their lives
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Social
Physical
Thinking process
 Consequent  Adolescent – Parents Conflict
Disagreement Topics
 Galambos
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Responsibilities,
Duties / house chores
Pocket money, dating
Friends
appearance
 Barber
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Families,
School
Curfews
Dating
Peers
Sexual behavior
 Tubman Conflict must occur  as a part of normal
adolescent development.
Reasons for Parents-child conflict
 Individuation period adolescent set own identity 
different from parents.
 De-idealization Adolescent are now aware that
parents are not always right/perfect (started to think
what’s logic and what’s not).
 Advance in reasoning abstract and logical thinking
ability  reasoning ability.
 Are more interested in the concept of JUSTICE,
RIGHTS, EQUILITY. (Thus  can think and questions
rules set by parents)
Conclusion
 Even though conflicts always occurs  but its not
harmful  will not threaten parents-child
relationship.
 In fact, conflict during adolescent is “simply a part
of becoming an adult”.
 Light (1990)  studies showed, some adolescent do
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Admire their parents.
Discuss problems with parents.
Seek advise and opinion from parents
Love and feel loved by their parents
Feel treasured and respected by parents.
Personality & Identity
Development
164
Identity: Asking "Who Am I?"
 During adolescence, self consciousness takes center stage!
 Teens focus on wondering “Who am I?” and “Where do I belong
in the world?”
 WHY??
 Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually
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Realize the importance of establishing self in society, and
shaping their individuality
 Teens become more like adults physically
 Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely aware of their own bodies
165
Self Concept: Refining Self Perceptions
Self concept broadens during adolescence to
include both one's own assessment of who you
are and also includes others' views.
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The view of self becomes more organized and
coherent.
Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of
traits and can see multiple aspects of themselves
(which can be confusing at first).
166
Self-esteem: Evaluating Oneself
 During adolescence, teens become
increasingly accurate in understanding
who they are (they develop their self
concept)
 The increase in self-concept does not
mean that they like themselves any better
(self esteem may still be low)
167
Self-esteem is influenced by several factors:
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Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls have
lower self-esteem
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SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem (especially
in late adolescence when one can buy things of value)
168
Forming an identity during the teen years:
Crisis or change?
Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter
substantial psychological difficulties in their search for
identity (“the adolescent identity crisis”)
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Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITYCONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine
what is unique and distinctive about themselves.
169
Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITYCONFUSION STAGE
Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a
dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse".
There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure
identity (or at least have clear career or major goals).
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Which job track to follow?
Attend college? Which one?
Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than
adults.
170
What is IDENTITY?
 Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that
emerges during adolescence.
 Identity involves a sense of self-unity, accompanied by a
feeling that the self has continuity over time.
 A firmly established identity also provides a sense of
uniqueness as a person.
171
During Adolescent Stage
 Changes occurs  influence adolescent to find
and form own identity (differs from their
parents).
 Changes that occurs forced adolescent to
“adjust and re-arrange” their lives  formed a
new identity.
 The physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development  its impact and influence on
adolescent.
 Form own perception on self  include peers
evaluation.
172
Search for Identity
 According to Erikson:-
 A teenager’s effort to make sense of the self is
a:
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Part of a healthy , vital process that builds on
the achievement of earlier stages.
Groundwork for coping with the crisis of adult
life.
 A man needs a stable identity before
reaching intimacy, whereas, women define
themselves through marriage and
motherhood ( may be different now).
173
IDENTITY - According to James Marcia
 Marcia argued that
 Identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities
and past experiences regarding the self.
 "The better developed this structure is, the more individuals
appear to be of their own...strengths and weaknesses....
 The less developed this structure is, the more confused
individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from
others and the more they have to rely on external sources to
evaluate themselves."
174
 Identity is a dynamic, not static psychological
structure.
 The formation of identity in adolescence sets the stage
for continual changes in the content of identity
through the adult years.
175
Marcia's Identity Statuses
 In Marcia's model, identity involves the adoption of
 a sexual orientation,
 a set of values and ideals and
 a vocational direction
 A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one's
strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness.
 A person with aless well-developed identity is not
able to define his or her personal strengths and
weaknesses, and does not have a well articulated
sense of self.
176
According to Marcia
 Crisis & Commitment influence individual
identity status.
 Identity formation  a long term process.
 Choose
 Arrange
 Try
 Push out
 Re-built
 Finally  choose (unique to him/her self)
177
Marcia’s identity formation process
 Foreclosure.
 Diffusion.
 Moratorium.
 Achievement.
 * Not progressive  based on experience and
exploration
178
Foreclosure.
 Commitment without crisis
 Lack exploration of alternatives
 Commitment has been made, but without
exploration of alternatives, identity is not
attained
 Developmentally unsophisticated level of
achievement
 Adopt parents' characteristics
179
Diffusion
 Lack of commitment
 Lack of exploration of alternatives
 Least sophisticated level of development
 Typically the level at which identity formation is
begun
 Do not feel accepted by parents
180
Moratorium
 Active exploration of alternative identities
 Commitment is desired, but it is not yet attained
 Sophisticated level of development
181
Achievement
 Individual has explored alternatives.
 Commitment is at a high level
 According to individual's in this status, "The parts of my self
feel as though they have finally come together." ( Archer,
1990 ).
 Most developmentally sophisticated status of identity
formation.
 Perceive parents as supportive
182
SUMMARY ON MARCIA’S
183
Identity Confusion
 Identity problem
 Autonomy problem
 Attachment problem
 Sexuality problem
 Achievement problem
184
Social Influence in Identity
Formation
 Family
 Discipline & relationship
 Environment
 Socio-cultural
 Diet
 Education
 Peers
 Status symbol
 Mass media
185
TOPIC 11
ADOLESCENT VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Beginning of Career Choice
 Career choice begin early:
 Personal experience:
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Watching parents/neighbours
Adult conversation
Role Play
Temporary/part-time work
 Early experience  adolescent learn  will continue
developing career towards their interest.
 However  career choice may change with maturity.
Stages in Career Development
 Since the age of 10  a child start to think what they want to
be when they grow up  will continue until 24 yrs old.
 Pre-adolescent period Career choice are based on
:Fantasy/Dream; Excitement/Adventure (Not on their ability).
 Early & middle adolescent  choice of career change according
to their interest, ability and their values.
 Late adolescent & early adult  able to make a correct choice
according to own ability, experience and knowledge.
 Choice of career are more clearer and establish after
succeeded entering college/higher learning institutions.
Ginzberg’s Career Choice Theory
 Ginzberg (1972) suggested 3 stages people move
through in choosing a career.
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Fantasy (11 & below)
Tentative (11-17 yrs. old)
Realistic (17/18 & above)
Stage 1: Fantasy
 Choice of career (ambitions) are made based on:
 Excitement & interesting
 Emotions & not practicality
 Child perceptions
* Fantasy period – the period of life when career choices are
made – and discarded – without regard to skills, abilities, or
available job opportunities
Stage 2: Tentative
 Focus  on self
 Career choice based on 4 aspects:
 Interest (11-12 years old)
 Capasity (13-14 years old)
 Values (15-16 years old)
 Transition (16-17 years old)
 Early adolescent  interest play a major role but as they grow
older  more matured  start thinking about their ability.
 Integration between interest and ability  from the value
system.
* Tentative period- the second stage which spans adolescence, in
which people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the
requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit
with those requirements
Stage 3: Realistic
• Focus on career opportunity and market demand.
• Starts reviewing their aspiration, needs & interest, their
ability and occupational work demand.
• Choice are also made based on:
▫ Experience & achievement so far.
▫ Family influences
▫ Personal job influence
• Realistic period – the stage in late adolescence and early
adulthood during which people can explore career options
through job experience or training, narrow their choices,
and eventually make a commitment to career
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
 According to Holland (1959):
 Individual personality influences a person
choice of career .
 6 types of basic personality  6 types of basic
occupations.
 Only certain types of occupation suits a
specific personality.
John Holland Theory of Career
Choice
 Personalities & basic environment:
 Realistic
 Investigative
 Conventional
 Enterprising
 Artistic
 Social
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
 Realistic – down-to earth, practical problem solvers,
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physically strong, mediocre social skills
Intellectual/Investigative – theoretical and abstract
orientation, not particularly good with people
Conventional – prefer highly structured tasks
Enterprising – risk takers and take-charge types, good
leaders
Artistic – use art to express themselves and prefer the
world of art to interactions with people
Social – verbal skills and interpersonal relations are
strong, good at working with people
John Holland Theory of Career Choice
YOUR Type of
PERSONALITY
•Realistic
•Investigative
•Conventional
•Enterprising
•Artistic
•Social
Type of Suitable
JOB environment
Suits
•
•
•
•
•
•
Realistic
Investigative
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Social
Potential
to succeed
Investigative/Intellectual
 Like to investigate  suitable to an abstract type of occupation,
intellectual and scientific.
Individual Characteristic
•Clever
•Analytical
•Independent
•Rasional
•Curious
Type of Occupation
•Mathematicians
•Chemist
•Biologist
•Physicist
 Not interested in Enterprising type of work
Realistic
 Prefer job in an objective environment  does not involve
good communication skills, involves physical & related to
technical and farming.
 Fav. type of work characteristics  relate to machine,
equipment, nature & athletic.
Individual Characteristic
•Mechanical
•Aggresive
•Strong/athletic
•Stuborn
•Stern
Type of Occupation
•Mechanic
•Rangers
•Carpenter
•Farmers
•Contractors
•Athletics
 Not interested in work related to Social
Conventional
 Career choice  involve community support but does not
involve lot of thinking Suitable in concrete and predictable
envirobnment. Prefer routine and structural type of work.
Individual Characteristic
•Specific/precise
•Orderly
•Practical
•Efficient
•Careful
Type of Occupation
•Accountant
•Proof-reader
•Statistician
•Secretary
 Not interested in artistic type of work
Enterprising
 Suitable in an adventurous, energizing and challenging work
environment. Have an empowering and extrovert personality,
and loves power.
 Not interested in realistic type of work
Individual Characteristic
•Coherent
•Aggressive
•Ambitious
•Confidence
•Controlling
Type of Occupation
•Sales person
•Politician
•Businessman
•Legal/law
•Evangelism
Artistic
 Suitable in an artistic  arts and designing environment 
able to express their creativity.
Individual Characteristic
•Independent
•Creative
•Non-conformist
•Abstract
•Idealistic
Type of Occupation
•Musician
•Artist/sculpture
•Dancer/singer
•Acting
•Others  related to art
 Not interested in conventional type of work.
Social
 Prefer job related to the social, administrative or treating
environment.  ability in communication and interpersonal
relationship.
Individual Characteristic
•Cooperative
•Tolerant
•Social
•Empathy
•Understanding
Type of Occupation
•Teaching
•Counselor
•Social work
•Psychologist/ psychiatrist
•Nurse/doctor
 Not interested in realistic type of occupation.