‘What’s in a name?’
The Power of Words and American Indians
Or is it Native Americans, or Indian
American, or First Nations, or First
Peoples, or Red Indians, or what?
Indians of North America
Anthropology E-320
Larry J. Zimmerman, PhD, RPA
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis
Indians—the terms comes from
Christopher Columbus and his use
of “los indios”
Salvador Dali’s “Dream of Christopher
Columbus, 1959
Columbus is heroic to some.
He’s a villain to others…
especially to Indians.
Beware of received wisdom and
myth about los indios
As maintained by some, such as Russell Means, Columbus didn't call the
locals "Indians" but referred to them as "una geste in Dios", meaning "a
people in God";
Problems:
•In this letter to the royal court soon after his
arrival in 1493, Columbus repeatedly refers to
India and Indians, and says nothing whatever
about "a people in God."
•The Spanish word for people is gente, not
geste .
Russell Means in Denver
Columbus Day Protest
•Refers to “las Indias” (the Indies) six times
and “los indios” (the Indians) four times.
For the Columbus letter in Spanish, see http://www.ensayistas.org/antologia/XV/colon/
For the English translation: http://www.usm.maine.edu/~maps/columbus/translation.html
In this course we use American Indians…
But lots of other terms persist:
•Native American—objections: lots of non-Indians can be
considered native Americans
•Native, often used in Canada—objections: native just
means that you are born in some place
•First Nations, official use in Canada—objections: had
profound political implications
•Indigenous—objections: see Native
•Red Indians—objections: uses skin color and too close to
pejorative “redskins”
•First Peoples, official use in Canada, objections: people
born in contemporary period same as anyone else
•Indian—objections: doesn’t distinguish from Asian Indians
But, Indian is the common usage, even
among Indians…
“Does anybody really think Indians had anything to do with
coining the term ‘Native American?’ We don’t call ourselves
‘Native American’ except in organization titles where the acronym
works better than it would with an I.
We call ourselves by our tribal names and Indians collectively, not
because we don’t understand Columbus’ mistake but just out of
habit.
Any Indian who is offended by the choice of either ‘Indian’ or
‘Native American’ is just looking for a reason to be offended.”
Steve Russell, Cherokee,
Assoc. Professor of Criminal
Justice Studies, Indiana
University-Bloomington
How are you supposed to know
which term to use?
Realize that Indian, or any other term,
is a non-Indian invention that has…
•political implications.
•a possibility of offending
someone.
•a way of over-generalizing
because it is a category.
•ramifications for self-image.
About the matter of self-esteem…
Our children are the least successful ethnic group in
every level of education. Our children have the highest
suicide rate of any ethnic group. Whether being mocked
and stereotyped makes it worse could be debated, but
there is no question that mascots don’t make it better. I
myself am a high school dropout, made to believe
Indians could not do formal education.
Steve Russell
“I always hated being the Indian. ‘Indian’
was kind of a dirty word to me. Indians
were savages who beat up on innocent
people. When I grew up in the 50s we
always watched cowboy shows on TV. I
always wanted to be a cowboy, never the
Indian.”
Leonard Bruguier, Ph.D.
Inhanktonwan (Yankton Sioux)
Most prefer to be called by tribal names, but
there are even problems with that.
Many are names given by other tribes.
Many are improper names given by
Euroamericans.
Tribal names often oversimplify great
diversity.
A good example
Name issues show up on
many tribal flags or seals
Sioux—probably given by the Chippewa, meaning lesser adder or
snake
Lakota, Nakota, or Dakota—commonly used and Siouan words, but
reference is to linguistic groups
Seven nations terms—Oceti Sakowin meaning the Seven Council
Fires
Things get more complicated…
The eastern division was originally called Isanyeti, meaning Knife
Makers. Today, they are known as the Santees and are comprised
of four Bands; Mdewakanton (Spirit Lake Dwellers), Wahpkute
(Shooter Among Leaves), Wahpeton (Dwellers Among the
Leaves), and Sisseton (Fish Scales in the Village).
The middle division consisted of the Yanktons or Inhanktonwan
and Yanktonnais or Ihanktonwana (Village at the End).
The western division is the Tetons (Dwellers on the Prairies). The
Tetons are made up of seven bands: Oglala (“dust scatterers”),
Sicangu (or Brulé, “burnt thighs” (with accent over e), Hunkpapa
(“end of the circle”), Miniconjous (“planters beside the stream”),
Sihasapa (or Blackfeet, different from the Blackfeet Tribe*),
Itazipacola (or Sans Arc, “without bows”) and Oohenupa (“two
kettles”).
*This can get confusing, which is of course one of the problems using names
assigned by non-Indians. Referring to the Blackfoot Sioux, sometimes also called
Blackfeet, it is best to use the full name, Blackfoot Sioux, or better, Sihasapa. This
will help to distinguish them from the Algonquian-speaking Blackfeet (sometimes
called Blackfoot) nation of Montana. These folks call themselves Siksika and are
relatives of the Piegan and Kainah (also called Blood) First Nations just across the
border in Canada.
We still aren’t done…
Most actually referred to themselves by their
tiyospaye, or family unit.
Examples: Wanaunsapi Tiyospaye, Pute Tiyospaye
(Lip’s camp), Thunder Bull Tiyospaye
Tiyospaye map of Pine Ridge
What did the nations call themsleves?
Examples from the Northeastern Woodland
Chippewa: Anishinabe*, Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Ojibway, Mississauga, Salteaux
Cree: Ininiw*, Nehiyawak*, Atheneuwuck*, Sackaweéthinyoowuk*
Deleware: Lenape*
Fox: Meskwaki*, Mesquaki
Huron: Wendat*, Wyandotte, Wyandot
Iroquois: Kanonsionni*, Haudensaunee* Cayuga *
Mohawk: Kaniengehawa*
Oneida *
Onondaga*
Seneca: Onotowaka*
Kickapoo: kiwegapaw*(?)
Menominee: Manomini*
Delaware/Lenni Lenape
are a good example of
Micmac: Souriquois* (?)
the use of both names
Sauk: Sac, Oskaiwugi*
Shawnee: Shawanwa*, Ouchaounanag, Chaouanons, Satanas, Shawano
Wampanoag* (but also Pokanoket, , Nauset, Sakonnet
Winnebago: Hochunga*, Ho-Chunk*, Puants
In other words, there’s no such thing
as an Indian, except for convenience!
If possible, call people what they want to be called.
If you “lump” recognize that you are doing so.
Understand that your choice may have repercussions.
Indians are among the most culturally diverse populations on
the planet, with more than 560 federally recognized nations
(US), more than 300 distinct languages and several thousand
dialects, and a wide range of customs.
Tribes or Nations?
Tribe has a connotation of groups that are
poorly organized.
Nations connote sophisticated
governmental structure and sovereignty.
Though tribe is used for convenience,
nation is often preferred.
Place names connote a link
to the original owners
Most of the great rivers of North America still
have Indian names: Mississippi, Ohio, Minnesota,
Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Wabash,
Assiniboine, Ottawa, Saskatchewan, Athabasca,
Potomac, Chattahoochee, Tallapoosa,
Tallahatchie, Yukon, Kuskokwim, Congaree,
Klamath, Sacramento, Quinnipiac, Suwannee,
Oconee, Kennebec, Muskegon, Mohawk,
Wabash, and Catawba, as well as hundreds of
smaller rivers, creeks, and streams in every state
and province.
See Jack Weatherford’s “Naming of North
America” from Native Roots - How The Indians
Enriched America
Even if you’re from Podunk Indiana,
you are using an Indian word…
"Podunk," meant to describe a insignificant town out in
the middle of nowhere, comes from a Natick Indian word
meaning "swampy place."
Derogatory terms are also a problem, especially
when someone doesn’t know they are…
Some are obvious: buck, redskin, savage
Others are debated: squaw (does it come
from Mohawk word ojiskwa' (sources vary on
spelling), meaning vagina or another group
meaning 'female, younger woman,' ?) Are
special terms for minority women ever right,
such as “Negress” or “Jewess?”
Some are contextual: Is it okay to call any
Indian man “chief?”
People names
•Most Indian people will never tell you that
they speak for anyone else but
themselves
•People’s non-Indian names are often
indicators of their family heritage
•Their Indian names are often indicators of
their character or some accomplishment
•They may have several Indian names
during their lifetimes.
•Wannabe’s, especially, New Agers, are
usually laughed at for their choice of
quasi-Indian names
Isn’t it all just “political correctness”
anyway?
Political correctness has somehow become a
negative instead of a positive it was supposed
to be.
What’s wrong with showing sensitivity to
people’s sensitivities?
Why go out of your way to insult someone
when you know they are or might be offended
by what you say?
Mostly, the golden rule ought to apply.
To willfully insult someone by your choice of
words is to show that you have power over
them…of which Indians have had enough!
So, are these folks founding fathers and
pioneers who helped make our country great?
Or just another bunch of terrorists?