Development
of Self
CHAPTER 6
Today’s Outline


Self-Recognition – Developing Knowledge about the Self

Mirror-and-Rouge Test Paradigm

Harter’s 6 Stages

Influences on Self-Recognition
Developing Knowledge about Others

Theory of Mind (ToM)

ToM Influences and Outcomes

Selman’s (2003) 4 Stages of Perspective-Taking
The Self: 3 Types
Awareness of the self as differentiated from other
people is crucial for children’s development

Individual Self - Aspects of the self that make a
person unique and separate from others

Relational Self - Aspects of the self that involve
connections to other people and develop out of
interactions with others

Collective Self - A person’s concept of self within a
group, such as a group based on race or gender
Self-Recognition

As young as 18 weeks, by age 2

Mirror-and-Rouge Paradigm

Visual self-recognition

Mark placed on face

By age 2: Recognize own image

Over time, identify relationship b/w body movements and
mirror image

Sensitive Period – before 2 years old
Self-Recognition: Harter’s 6
Stages
 2-4
years - observable physical features,
physical activities, social relationships,
preferences, possessions,
 5-7
years – focus on specific competencies
 8-10
- more complex descriptions - focus on
abilities and interpersonal attributes, social
comparison, global self-esteem
 “I’m
friendly,”
Self-Recognition
Harter’s 6 Stages

Early adolescence - interpersonal attributes, social
skills, competencies, emotions; recognize different
selves in different contexts

Mid adolescence - introspective and
preoccupied with what others think of them;
begin to question self descriptions, especially
when there are contradictions

Late adolescence - emphasize personal beliefs,
values, and moral standards; think about future
and possible selves
Influences on Self-Recognition

Pretend play and personal pronouns (Lewis & Ramsay, 2004)

Culture and Parenting Styles (Keller et al; 2004)

Body Contact, Body Stimulation, Object Stimulation, Face-to-Face,
Mutual Gaze

Proximal Parenting Style – body contact and stimulation
(Cameroonian Nso farmers)

Distal Parenting Style – face-to-face exchange and object
stimulation (Greek urban, middle-class families)

Combo Style – autonomy and relatedness (Costa Rican middle-class
families)

Session 1: 3-months old; free play with mother

Session 2: 18-20 months old; rouge test
Visual Self-Recognition
Yes
No
100%
97%
80%
60%
68%
50% 50%
40%
20%
32%
3%
0%
Greek
Distal
Costa Rica
Combo
Nso
Proximal
Influences on Self-Recognition Maltreatment

19-month old infants

IV:

Lower-class, Maltreated

Lower-class, Healthy

Strange Situation: to assess quality of attachment relationship

Then, mirror-and-rouge test


Visual S-R present = touch nose while looking at reflection
Coded emotions before and after rouge applied

Smiles, laughs, surprise facial expressions, stares, concetrates, puzzled
(Schneider-Rosen & Cicchetti, 1984)
Of those infants with visual
self-recognition
Healthy Infants
Maltreated Infants
10%
40%
60%
Secure
Insecure
90%
(Schneider-Rosen & Cicchetti, 1984)
Influences on Self-Recognition

Female university students, 18-27 years old and 1 friend

Recognition of own face vs. Recognition of Familiar Face


Right inferior frontal gyrus, Right insula

Recall: Right hemispheric lateralization
Replication in children needed
(Devue et al., 2007)
right inferior frontal gyrus
Theory of Mind – Developing
Knowledge about others

ToM: Ability to explain and predict other people’s behavior
by attributing them to independent mental states (e.g.,
beliefs, desires)

Quickly increases from ages 2 to 6.

Development due to maturation of pre-programmed brain
functioning and with experiences (# siblings, parental
interaction)

Inferential False Belief Tasks

Universally failed at age 3

Universally mastered at age 4 o 5
Inferential False Belief Tasks

Litmus test for ToM

Assesses False-Belief Understanding



Understanding that an individual’s belief or representation about
the world may contrast with reality (Dennett, 1978)
First-Order False Belief Tasks –

Fail to recognize own past beliefs were false

Unexpected Contents task (“Smarties;” Gopnik & Astington, 1988)
Second-Order False Belief Tasks –

Fail to recognize the false belief another person holds

Ice-Cream Van Story (Perner & Wimmer, 1985)
Correct
Incorrect
Response Latencies (in seconds)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3.5
4.5
Age (in years)
5.5
(Atance, Bernstein, & Meltzoff, 2010)
ToM: Influences and Outcomes



Siblings, Friends, Family Discussions (McAlister & Peterson, 2012)

Pretend Play; Dispute Resolution

Older siblings – Yes!, Twins - No!; Birth Order
Prefrontal Cortex (Bedny & Saxe, 2012)

Activated when listened to descriptions of character’s mental
states (vs. descriptions of physical events)

5-11 year-old children and adults
Outcomes


Higher IQ, More prosocial behaviors
ToM in early childhood (3 yrs – 5 yrs) linked to greater executive
functioning 1 year later (McAlister & Peterson, 2012)
Selman’s (2003)
Perspective-Taking Stages
Age
Stage
Before 6 0: Egocentric
Description
Understand people have different opinions
from their own, but often confuse their
thoughts/opinions with others’
6-8
1: Differentiated Realize that people may have the same or
different perspective from themselves. But,
still cannot judge another person’s
perspective accurately.
8-10
2: Reciprocal
Look at themselves through another person’s
eyes and know others can do the same.
Anticipate and consider other’s
thoughts/feelings
10-12
3: Mutual
Children can view their own perspective, a
peer’s perspective, and their shared
perspective from the view of a third person.
Societal or
in-depth
Understand another’s perspective by
comparing to a “generalized other”
12+
Global Self-Esteem

Self-esteem - The evaluative component of self
that taps how positively or negatively people
view themselves in relation to others

Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as
competent, capable, and are pleased with who they
are

Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those
with low self-esteem

High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of
positive adjustment outcomes including school success,
good relationships with parents and peers, and less
anxiety and depression

But, direction of effects is unclear
Domain-Specific Self-Esteem

Five Domains of Self Perceptions
 Scholastic
Ability
 Athletic
Competence
 Physical
Appearance
 Behavioral
 Social
Conduct
Acceptance
Global
SelfEsteem
Global Self-Esteem:
Group Differences
 Gender
 Ethnicity/culture
 Age
Mean-Level Changes in Self-Esteem
Explain the changes!!
1. Age 15: Self-esteem decreases
2. Mid-20’s: Self-esteem increases
3. Age 65: Self-esteem decreases
High
SE
Low
SE
5
15
25
35
45
Age
55
65
75
Influences on Self-Esteem
 Family
 Peers
 Teachers
and Mentors