What were the key features of
the Warlord Period?
L/O – To identify the causes, events and significance of the
Warlord Period in China, 1916-1927
What was the Warlord Period?
• The Warlord Period in China was a period of
anarchy and civil war between 1916-1927.
• On the death of Yüan Shikai China was ruled
by coalitions of his ex-generals, who ruled
parts of China in ‘cliques’ and ‘factions’.
• Loyalties constantly shifted between these
factions in an attempt to dominate China.
• China was finally re-unified in 1927 by the
United Front – a coalition of Kuomintang
and Communist Party forces, supported by
the USSR.
Yüan Shikai
(袁世凯)
Yüan Shikai’s Legacy
• Yüan Shikai’s attempts to restore the
monarchy in 1916 divided politics in China.
• Southern revolutionaries like Sun Yat-sen
formed a ‘Military Affairs Council’ to oppose
Yüan and protect the 1912 Republican
Constitution. Northern generals generally
supported Yüan and his new 1914
Constitution.
• When Yüan died in June 1916, he left behind
a China that was divided. A weak central
government failed to enforce its rule in the
provinces, which were controlled by Yüan’s
old generals – they began to rule as warlords.
Yüan Shikai
(袁世凯)
Sun Yat-sen
(孫中山)
Formation of a New Government
• Vice-President Li Yuanhong took over the
Presidency on 7th June 1916. Feng
Guozhang was made Vice-President. Duan
Qirui was made Premier.
• This created a new conflict – would the
new President rule in accordance with
Yüan’s 1914 Constitution or according to
Sun Yat-sen’s 1912 Constitution?
• Southern nationalists supported the 1912
Constitution whereas Premier Duan Qirui
and other northern republicans supported
the 1914 Constitution.
Li Yuanhong 黎元洪
Feng Guozhang
冯国璋
Duan Qirui
段祺瑞
Formation of a New Government
• It appeared as if a new war would start.
However it was solved when the naval
commander of Shanghai declared
independence on 25th June 1916.
• Supported by Vice-President Feng
Guozhong, President Li was forced to
restore the original 1912 Constitution.
Feng Guozhang
冯国璋
• On 1st August, the old national assembly
that had been dissolved by Yüan Shikai
was re-established. The revolutionaries
then dissolved their ‘Military Affairs
Li Yuanhong 黎元洪
Council’. China was re-united again.
New Government, New Conflicts
• In the new government, President Li was
weak and easily manipulated. Real
power lied with the Premier, Duan Qirui,
who was the most powerful northern
Beiyang general.
• In May 1917, Duan wanted China to
declare war on Germany, hoping to
improve China’s international influence.
• He was opposed by President Li and
Vice-President Feng Guozhang. Duan
now attempted to outmanoeuvre them.
Duan Qirui
段祺瑞
Li Yuanhong 黎元洪
Feng Guozhang
冯国璋
New Government, New Conflicts
• Duan declared war on Germany on 14th May
1917, without Parliamentary or Presidential
approval.
• He then pressurised parliament into signing
the declaration of war, using 3000 of his
supporters to surround parliament.
Duan Qirui
段祺瑞
• He also got his generals and military
supporters to demand that President Li
dissolve Parliament. In reply, Parliament Li Yuanhong 黎元洪
urged the President to dismiss Duan! On
23rd May 1917, President Li dismissed Duan.
New Government, New Conflicts
• In reply, Duan’s northern supporters
declared independence – Shaanxi,
Shanxi, Zhejiang, Shandong, Zhili, Fujian.
• They organised a military headquarters
at Tientsin and marched on Beijing. In
desperation, President Li turned to the
military governor of Anhui, Zhang Xun
who came to Beijing with 5000 soldiers.
• On 7th June, Zhang arrived but
demanded that President Li dissolve
Parliament. Li had no choice and illegally
dissolved Parliament on 12th June 1917.
Zhang Xun
张勋
The Manchu Restoration
Zhang Xun
张勋
• Now holding power in Beijing, Zhang
worked with Kang Youwei to restore the
Qing Dynasty. They restored Puyi to the
throne on 1st July 1917.
• Qing institutions were revived, along with
appointments and ranks. Zhang appointed
himself Chief Minister and replaced the
warlord Cao Kun as Governor General of
Zhili province.
Kang Youwei
康有為
Emperor Puyi
溥儀
Duan Qirui 段祺瑞
• Duan Qirui and Cao Kun then united and
marched on Beijing, defeating the 20,000
strong army of Zhang Xun on 12th July - the
restoration movement was destroyed.
Cao Kun 曹锟
The Constitution Protection Movement
• Duan Qirui was now back in power as
Premier. Feng Gouzhang was made
President but lacked power.
Liang Qichao
梁启超
• Supported by Liang Qichao and the
‘Research Clique’, Duan called for a new
constitution and provisional parliament.
• This upset the southern revolutionaries
who believed he should have reconvened
the old parliament.
• In response, Sun Yat-sen established a
military government in Guangzhou, styling
itself the ‘Constitution Protection
Movement’.
Duan Qirui 段祺瑞
The Rise of Duan Qirui
• Duan now sought to crush domestic
opposition. He manipulated the new
provisional parliament into amending the
election laws of the 1912 Constitution.
• Through his political faction, the ‘An-fu
Club’, he dominated over 2/3 of the votes in
the August 1918 election.
• He used this majority to pass a resolution
declaring war on Germany on 14th August.
This enabled him to negotiate the
‘Nishihara loan’ of 145 million Yen from
Japan – using the money to fund an army to
attack the south.
Duan Qirui 段祺瑞
Splits in the Beiyang Clique
• With this new support, he sent troops to
attack the southern provinces of the
Constitution Protection Movement.
Feng Guozhang
冯国璋
• However President Feng Guozhang and
the General Wu Peifu disagreed with this
– hoping for a peaceful resolution.
• Their disagreements split the ‘Beiyang
Clique’ into two:
• Anhui Clique – led by Premier Duan Qirui
• Zhili Clique – led by Cuo Kun and Wu Peifu
after the death of President Feng Guozhong
in 1919
Wu Peifu
吴佩孚
First Zhili-Fengtien War
• When Duan’s campaign against the Southern
Revolutionaries failed, he was forced to resign
on 22nd November 1918. He blamed the Zhili
Clique for the defeat which was now led by
Cuo Kun.
Cao Kun 曹锟
• In 1920, fighting broke out between the two
cliques. However the Zhili Clique won, having
gained support from the ‘Fengtien Clique’ of
Manchuria, led by Zhang Zoulin.
• In April 1922, fighting broke out between
these two allies, with the Zhili Clique winning,
although Zhang Zoulin retained control of
Manchuria.
Zhang Zoulin
张作霖
Splits amongst the Zhili Clique
• In an attempt an national unification,
the Zhili Clique appointed Li Yuanhung
as President for the second time on 11th
June 1922.
Li Yuanhong 黎元洪
• However! The Zhili Clique were split on
this appointment:
• The Tientsin-Paoting Faction - wanted
Cao Kun as President.
• The Lo-Yang Faction – led by Wu Peifu
wanted Li Yuanhung as President.
Cao Kun 曹锟
Second Zhili-Fengtien War
• Due to these disagreements, President Li
was forced out of office again in June
1923, having ruled for only a year.
Cao Kun 曹锟
• In October, Cao Kun had himself elected
President by bribing over 500 members
of the Parliament with 5000 Chinese
dollars each.
• This disgusted many in China. The
Fengtien Clique in Manchuria marched
on Peking which precipitated the Second
Zhili-Fengtien War.
Zhang Zoulin
张作霖
The Collapse of the Zhili Clique
• The war began with Commander-inChief Wu Peifu leading his 170,000 army
out to meet the Fengtien forces.
• On his way to the front, his third army
commander, Feng Yuxiang – the
‘Christian General’, mutinied and
occupied Beijing on 23rd October 1924.
• This led to the total collapse of Zhili
forces! Feng and his ‘National People’s
Army’ re-organised the government,
forcing Cao Kun out of power on 2nd
November 1924.
Feng Yuxiang
冯玉祥
Attempts at Re-unification
• In a final attempt at national unification,
the National People’s Army and the Anhwei
Clique asked Duan Qirui to become Chief
Executive (acting President) of a provisional
government.
• They also invited Sun Yat-sen to Peking to
discuss peace. Sun arrived on 31st
December 1924. Over 100,000 people
celebrated his arrival.
Duan Qirui 段祺瑞
• However he realised that Duan’s attempts
at reconciliation were insincere. He died on
12th March 1925, a disappointed and
dejected man. His last words were, ‘Peace,
struggle…save China’.
Sun Yat-sen
(孫中山)
The Impact of the Warlord Period
• For many Chinese historians, the Warlord Period
represented the classic period of anarchy that often
followed the collapse of a dynasty.
• Warlords exploited the competition for power between Sun
Yat-sen’s Nationalist Government in Guangzhou and the
supposedly Republican government in Beijing.
• However a clear north/south divide emerged. Southern
warlords generally supported Sun Yat-sen and the
Nationalists. Northern warlords supported the Republicans
in Beijing.
Positive Features of the Warlord Period
• Economic – Some warlords like Zhang Zoulin in Manchuria
promoted industrial development. The absence of central
control enabled local industries to flourish.
• Political – The chaos intensified nationalist feelings in China.
Intellectuals were unified in their hatred of the warlords
which gave direction to new revolutionary movements like
the CCP and KMT.
• Cultural – The chaos also gave the New Culture Movement a
common sense of grievance and provided a causes around
which the Chinese could unite.
Discussion Questions
• Were the Warlords a symptom of China’s weakness or the
cause of China’s weakness?
• To what extent was the Warlord Period a result of Yuan
Shikai’s rule?
• Were all Warlords a negative influence on China or did some
try to improve their regions?
• Were there any positive aspects to Warlord rule?
• Could the Warlord Period have been avoided?