Erik Erikson, James Marcia, and
Ego-Identity Status in Early Adolescents
Jessica Lambert
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Who am I?
Where am I going?
What do I believe in and why?
What do I want to do with my life?
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Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994):
• Born illegitimately in 1902 in Germany.
Ethnically Danish-Jewish. (May have
also been part German, but biological
father is uncertain.)
• Struggled in school, and after finishing
high school, alternately traveled around
Europe and took a few college-level art
classes, trying to figure out his life.
• At the age of 25, was given a position
teaching children at a school founded by
Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham in
Vienna; and began to study child
psychoanalysis with Anna Freud.
• Married at 27; then in 1933, took his wife
and children and moved from Germany
to Boston to escape Hitler.
• In the United States, worked as a
psychoanalyst; taught at universities,
including Harvard; and conducted
original research. Continued teaching
until his death in 1994.
3
Erikson was a Freudian, yet he found Freud’s theory of development
imperfect, particularly because its focus on body zones is too
specific and hence limiting. Erikson believed that “for each libidinal
zone we can also speak of an ego mode,” a more general “mode of
activity” (Crain 279). Erikson also added stages to Freud’s theory:
for Erikson, development continues on some level even into old age.
4
For Erikson, there are eight stages of human development – not only
five as according to Freud. At each stage, something new is
introduced, and the individual is faced with an unique crisis specific
to this stage.
“Each successive step . . . is a potential crisis because of a radical
change in perspective. Crisis is used here in a developmental sense
to connote not a threat of catastrophe, but a turning point, a crucial
period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential, and
therefore, the ontogenetic source of generational strength and
maladjustment. The most radical change of all, from intrauterine to
extrauterine life, comes at the very beginning of life. But in postnatal
existence, too . . . radical adjustments of perspective . . . must all be
accomplished in their own good time. With them, the interpersonal
perspective also changes rapidly and often radically. . . [D]ifferent
capacities use different opportunities to become full-grown
components of the ever-new configuration that is the growing
personality.”
--Erikson, 1968
5
The 8 stages of life according to Erikson:
1. The oral stage:
● incorporation, and biting or
grasping: first passive taking
in, then active taking.
 trust vs. mistrust
2. The anal stage:
● holding on and letting go
 autonomy vs. shame and
doubt
3. The phallic (Oedipal) stage:
● intrusion
 initiative vs. guilt
4. The latency stage:
 industry vs. inferiority
5. Puberty (the genital stage):
● new social conflicts and
demands
 ego identity vs. role confusion
6. Young adulthood
● adolescent is self-centered:
centered with who he is and
how the world sees him
 intimacy and solidarity vs.
isolation
7. Adulthood
 generativity vs. selfabsorption and stagnation
8. Old age
● life review
 ego integrity vs. despair
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The Ego-Identity Crisis:
The crisis in the life of the adolescent is that of forming an egoidentity, a clear sense of who one is, what one’s place in the world
is, what one wishes to do with one’s life, what one believes, etc.
There are many domains in identity formation – not all will reach
identity achievement status at the same time. For example, an
adolescent will not necessarily reach identity achievement in the
domains of religion, political views, desired college major, etc., at the
same time – in fact, he probably will not.
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“With a good initial relationship to skills and tools, and with the
advent of puberty, childhood proper comes to an end. The rapidly
growing youths, faced with the inner revolution of puberty and with
as yet intangible adult tasks, are now primarily concerned with their
psychosocial identity and with fitting their rudimentary gifts and skills
to the occupational prototypes of the culture.
“The integration of an identity is more than the sum of
childhood identifications. It is the accrued confidence that the inner
sameness and continuity gathered over the past years of
development are matched by the sameness and continuity in one’s
meaning for others, as evidenced in the tangible promise of careers
and life-styles.
“The adolescent’s regressive and yet powerful impulsiveness
alternating with compulsive restraint is well known. In all of this
however, an ideological seeking after an inner coherence and a
durable set of values can be detected. The particular strength
sought is fidelity—that is, the opportunity to fulfill personal
potentialities . . . in a context which permits the young person to the
true to himself and to significant others.”
--Erikson, 1968
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“In times of unrest, the adolescent mind becomes an
ideological mind in search of an inspiring unification of ideas. Youth
needs to be affirmed by peers and confirmed by teachings, creeds,
and ideologies which express the promise that the best people will
come to rule and that rule will develop in the best people. A
society’s ideological weakness, in turn, expresses itself in weak
utopianism and in widespread identity confusion.
“Fidelity, then, is the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in
spite of the inevitable contradictions of value systems. It is the
cornerstone of identity and receives inspiration from confirming
ideologies and ‘ways of life.’ ”
--Erikson, 1968
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Ego-Identity Status is determined by:
● Exploration
● Commitment.
Exploration is determined by:
● knowledgeability
● activity directed toward
gathering information
● evidence of consideration of
alternative possible identity
elements
● emotional tone
● desire to make an early
decision
Commitment is determined by:
● knowledgeability
● activity directed toward
implementing the chosen
identity element
● emotional tone
● identification with significant
others
● projection into one’s personal
future
● resistance to being swayed
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4 possible identity statuses with regard to a
particular domain:
● Foreclosure (low exploration,
● Diffusion (low exploration, low
commitment)
- lack of commitment to any
career
- little or no urgency is felt
- may demonstrate knowledge,
but lack enthusiasm and hope;
may be apathetic
- Identity diffusion in the
domain of family vs. career
priorities is more characteristic
of younger adolescents.
high commitment)
- expresses a genuine
commitment to one vocation
without ever having seriously
considered alternatives: this
selection often made at an early
age
- activities and knowledge tend
to be restricted to this
(prematurely) chosen field
- emotional tone is one of
assurance
- anticipates no conflict between
the options of family and / or
career; usually relies on a
parent or older sibling as a
model for choice of priorities in
this domain
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4 possible identity statuses with regard to a
particular domain (continued):
● Identity Achievement (high
● Moratorium (high exploration,
no commitment yet)
- simultaneously or
sequentially selecting from
among several alternatives
- able to assess personal skills
in the context of the needs of
the job
- anxiety probably more
prevalent among older than
younger adolescents
- family and career roles
important consideration
exploration, high commitment)
- has successfully resolved the
moratorium and is presently
committed to the vocational
alternative that feels most
personally expressive
- resists enticements toward
“better” career options,
although flexible statements are
typically made
- able to discuss the pros and
cons of expected career as well
as of those discarded
- may continue to express
anxiety if concerned about
ability to implement preference
successfully
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Into which of Erickson’s four categories of
identity achievement – diffusion, moratorium,
foreclosure, or identity – do middle-school aged
children fall when asked about their plans for the
future, especially intended college majors,
intended careers, and plans for marriage and
family? Is there a significant difference between
the thinking or identity statuses of males and
females in this age category?
13
The research was carried out in the form of personal interviews with
volunteers from the eighth-grade class at Holy Family of Nazareth
Catholic School in Irving Texas. My interview was a smaller-scale
version based on interviews used in research conducted by the
psychologist James Marcia, a student of Erikson’s philosophy, and
his colleagues.
The study was guided by an examination of the participants’ levels
of exploration and commitment in the topics discussed. The level of
exploration was determined by examining each participant’s
knowledgeability, activity directed toward gathering information,
consideration of alternatives, emotional tone, and desire to make an
early decision. The level of commitment was determined by
examining knowledgeability, activity directed towards implementing
the chosen identity element, emotional tone, identification with
significant others, projection into the future, and resistance to being
swayed.
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Hypotheses based on reading:



Few if any eighth graders will demonstrate ego-identity
achievement.
Females will demonstrate greater sophistication in decision-making
about family and career priorities, and will be more likely to let
relationships play a role in the decision-making.
Identity-formation, if present at all at this age, will be less difficult for
males.
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Identity Status Results for 9 Respondents:
R1
M 14; 3
Career: M
Marriage / Family: F
R 2
F
13; 10
Career: M
Marriage / Family: F / M
R 3
F
13; 11
College choice: F; Career: D
Marriage / Family: F
R 4
M 13; 10
Career: D
Marriage / Family: F
R 5
F
College / Career: D / M
Marriage / Family: F / M
R 6
M 14; 6
College choice/ going to college: F; Major / Career: D
Marriage / Family: F
R 7
F
14; 6
College / Career: D / M
Marriage / Family: D / F
R 8
M 14; 1
College / Career: F
Marriage / Family: F / D
R 9
M 13; 11
D / F for all domains
13; 10
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Conclusions:



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None of the respondents had fully reached a status of Identity
Achievement in the domains studied.
A status of Moratorium was far more common among female than
among male respondents.
Female respondents were slightly more likely than male
respondents to appear to have given thought to the possibility of
family and career priorities conflicting, and to how to potentially
resolve that conflict.
Many respondents exhibited borderline identity states (D/F; D/M,
F/M, F/D, M/D). Especially in the case of the respondents who
appeared to be in borderline moratorium states, this evidence
seems to confirm the theory that it is not until adolescence that
identity formation really begins in earnest. In other words, the
respondents exhibited borderline states because they were
becoming aware of the complexities involved in decision-making,
becoming more mature, and as they transitioned into adolescence,
becoming capable of the early stages of identity formation.
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A point of interest. . .
According to my interview respondents, the majority of parents
support their children in whatever their interests are, without pushing
any one career over others. Among the parents who do have a
preference for what career their child will pursue, and who make that
preference known to the child, the most common preference is that
the child will grow up to be a. . .
DOCTOR.
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“Whenever we try to understand growth, it is well to remember the
epigenetic principle which is derived from the growth of organisms in utero.
Somewhat generalized, this principle states that anything that grows has a
ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part
having its special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a
functioning whole. . . [I]n the sequence of his most personal experiences the
healthy child, given a reasonable amount of proper guidance, can be trusted
to obey the inner laws of development, laws which create a succession of
potentialities for significant interaction with those persons who tend and
respond to him and those institutions which are ready for him. . .
“[T]he social institution which is the guardian of identity is what we
have called ideology. One may see in ideology also the imagery of an
aristocracy in its widest possible sense, which connotes that within a defined
world image and a given course of history the best people will come to rule
and rule will develop the best in people. In order not to become cynically or
apathetically lost, young people must somehow be able to convince
themselves that those who succeed in their anticipated adult world thereby
shoulder the obligation of being best. For it is through their ideology that
social systems enter into the fiber of the next generation and attempt to
absorb into their lifeblood the rejuvenative power of youth. Adolescence is
thus a vital regenerator in the process of social evolution, for youth can
offer its loyalties and energies both to the conservation of that which
continues to feel true and to the revolutionary correction of that which has
lost its regenerative significance.”
--Erikson, 1968
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 ————————————————————
Nature
Erikson
Nurture
(Rousseau)
(Locke)
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What I would do differently:



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Use a larger sample, with greater variety in age, SES, race, etc.
Be more careful in the phrasing of my questions.
In a few cases, ask the respondent to elaborate more on an answer.
Try to appear in the classroom and interact with the children on
several occasions prior to doing the interviewing  hopefully this
would lead to less nervousness and more openness on the part of
some of my respondents.
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Quotables:

“I just want to get out of the country [when I finish high school] – [go
to] Japan, [and] get an English major.”

“At one point I wanted to be a doctor, but that became a strain when I
noticed that blood is pretty scary.”

“[The most unattractive thing about marriage is] um. . . well the
biggest thing is probably um, debt. Spending. If [my wife’s] credit’s
really bad, then, um, I’m in hot water.”

“[My parents] want me to um, be a surgeon. . . I don’t really have a
problem with it, because like, I’m able to like mold stuff and
everything; like I’m really good at art. . .”

“[I don’t plan to get married because] I’d just rather think about
myself.”
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Sources:
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Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and
Applications, 5th ed, chapter 12. Pearson: Upper Saddle River, NJ,
2005. 277-302.
Erikson, Erik H. “The Human Life Cycle.” 1968. A Way of Looking
at Things: Selected Papers from 1930 to 1980. Ed. Stephen
Schlein. 595-610. New York: Norton, 1987.
Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis, chapter 3. 91-141. New
York: Norton, 1968.
Marcia, et al. Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research.
New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993.
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