Preparing for Effective
Argumentation
What’s the connection?
• Emotional Appeals are often employed in
propaganda
• Logical Fallacies are often present in
those appeals
• Positive or negative connotation?
– TECHNIQUE
Aristotle’s Appeals
• The goal of argumentative writing is to
persuade your audience that your ideas
are valid, or more valid than someone
else's.
• The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided
the means of persuasion, appeals, into
three categories--Ethos, Pathos, Logos.
Rhetoric
• Rhetoric (n) - the art of speaking or
writing effectively (Webster's Definition).
• According to Aristotle, rhetoric is "the
ability, in each particular case, to see
the available means of persuasion." He
described three main forms of rhetoric:
Ethos, Logos, and Pathos.
Ethos
• Refers to the trustworthiness or credibility
of the writer or speaker.
• Greek for “character”
• The impact of ethos is often called the
argument's 'ethical appeal' or the 'appeal
from credibility.'
Pathos
• Greek for 'suffering' or 'experience'
• often associated with emotional appeal
• 'appeal to the audience's sympathies and
imagination.'
• An appeal to pathos causes an audience
not just to respond emotionally but to
identify with the writer's point of view--to
feel what the writer feels.
Logos
• Greek for 'word'
• Refers to the internal consistency of the
message--the clarity of the claim, the logic
of its reasons, and the effectiveness of its
supporting evidence.
• The impact of logos on an audience is
sometimes called the argument's logical
appeal.
Logical Fallacy
• Fallacies are common errors in reasoning
that will undermine the logic of your
argument.
• Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments
or irrelevant points, and are often identified
because they lack evidence that supports
their claim.
• Avoid these common fallacies in your own
arguments and watch for them in the
arguments of others.
•
*from Purdue OWL
Red Herring
• Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic
that avoids the key issues, often by
avoiding opposing arguments rather than
addressing them.
• Example: The level of mercury in seafood
may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to
support their families?
Ad hominem
• Ad hominem: This is an attack on the
character of a person rather than her/his
opinions or arguments.
• Example: Green Peace's strategies aren't
effective because they are all dirty, lazy
hippies.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
• Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a
conclusion that assumes that if 'A'
occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have
caused 'A.'
• Example: I drank bottled water and now I
am sick, so the water must have made me
sick.
Ad misericordiam (appeal to
pity)
• Assent or dissent to a statement or an argument is
sought on the basis of an irrelevant appeal to pity. In
other words, pity, or the related emotion is not the
subject or the conclusion of the argument.
• Example: Oh, Officer, There's no reason to give me a
traffic ticket for going too fast because I was just on my
way to the hospital to see my wife who is in serious
condition to tell her I just lost my job and the car will be
repossessed.
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Person L argues statement p or argument A.
L deserves pity because of circumstance y.
Circumstance y is irrelevant to p or A.
Statement p is true or argument A is good.
Dicto simpliciter
• A fallacy in which a general rule is treated
as universally true regardless of the
circumstances: a sweeping generalization.
• Example: Exercise is good; therefore,
everyone should exercise
Circular Reasoning
• Circular Argument: This restates the
argument rather than actually proving it.
• Example: Barak Obama is a good
communicator because he speaks
effectively.
Which of the following is NOT
circular reasoning?
• 1. Mike was the best candidate for president,
because he was totally better than any of the
others.
• 2. Parent: “It’s bed time, go to bed.” Child:
“Why?” Parent: “Because I said so.”
• 3. If such actions were not illegal, then they would
not be prohibited by the law.4. They signed Jackie
Chan to play the lead, because Hollywood cannot
make an action movie without a big star.
Appeal to Authority
• When a well-known figure is used as
supporting evidence for a statement’s validity,
the hope is that merely by association with
the person's name, the idea will be accepted.
The strategy is a fallacious argument
because the person may not be an expert on
the subject in question or there is no
evidence that shows that the well-known
figure is in support of the proposed
statement.
• Example: Tim Tebow takes additional vitamin
C tablets, which he swears keeps him
healthy.
Slippery Slope
• This is a conclusion based on the premise
that if A happens, then eventually through a
series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z
will happen, too, basically equating A and Z.
So, if we don't want Z to occur, A must not be
allowed to occur either.
• Example: If we ban Hummers because they
are bad for the environment eventually the
government will ban all cars, so we should
not ban Hummers.
Appeal to Force
• Appeal to force is committed when the
arguer threatens (even implicitly) that
some harm will come to the persuadee
unless the persuadee accepts the
conclusion. It is a fallacy if the harmful
circumstances are not related to the topic
of the conclusion of argument.
Propaganda
• Dissemination of information—facts,
arguments, rumors, half-truths, or lies—to
influence public opinion.
• The systematic effort to manipulate other
people’s beliefs, attitudes, or actions by
means of symbols (words, gestures,
banners, monuments, music, clothing,
insignia, hairstyles, designs on coins and
postage stamps, and so forth).
• In The Fine Art of Propaganda, the IPA
stated that "It is essential in a democratic
society that young people and adults learn
how to think, learn how to make up their
minds. They must learn how to think
independently, and they must learn how to
think together. They must come to
conclusions, but at the same time they must
recognize the right of other men to come to
opposite conclusions. So far as individuals
are concerned, the art of democracy is the
art of thinking and discussing independently
together."
Logical Fallacies Part I: Do you
follow?
Logical Fallacies Part II: Still
following?
Plain Folks
• By using the plain-folks technique,
speakers attempt to convince their
audience that they, and their ideas, are "of
the people." The device is used by
advertisers and politicians alike.
Bandwagon
• This type of propaganda is used
to pacify us—it makes
something sound less
threatening than it should.
• Example: “All veterans are voting for our
candidate!”
Scare Tactics
• This technique gets people to
act out of fear rather than
logical thinking.
• Example: “My opponent will cut jobs!”
Innuendo
• This technique hints bad things
about somebody (or a group)
but doesn’t explain or provide
any proof.
Appeal to Science
• This technique suggests that
something is good because it is
more scientifically advanced.
Snob Appeal
• This technique makes people
think they are better that
others if they act a certain way.
Name-Calling
• The name-calling technique links a
person, or idea, to a negative symbol. The
propagandist who uses this technique
hopes that the audience will reject the
person or the idea on the basis of the
negative symbol, instead of looking at the
available evidence.
• Example: Hitler did this when he said,
“Jews are swine.”
Glittering Generality
• The Glittering Generality is, in short, Name Calling
in reverse. While Name Calling seeks to make us
form a judgment to reject and condemn without
examining the evidence, the Glittering Generality
device seeks to make us approve and accept
without examining the evidence.
• We believe in, fight for, live by virtue words about
which we have deep-set ideas. Such words
include civilization, good, right, democracy,
patriotism, motherhood, fatherhood, science,
medicine, health, and love.
Euphemisms
• This type of propaganda is used
to pacify us—it makes
something sound less
threatening than it should.
• Often used in the military…
George Carlin on
euphemisms…
Testimonial
• Using a famous person to try to make you
buy or support something or someone
• Similar to “Transfer”—certain people,
words, pictures act as symbols when they
are paired with products, ideas, etc.
• Example: Tiger Woods wears Nike,
Jessica Simpson recommends Proactive.
Humor
• Giving the audience a reason to laugh or
to be entertained by clever use of visuals
or language.
• Examples: Geico commercials (so easy, a
caveman can do it…NOT the gecko…let’s
be honest, he’s NOT funny…in fact, I’d like
to motion that he be removed from their
commercials…he makes me want to buy
Geico LESS….)