Morphology
Definitions:
Morphology: A systematic study of morphemes or how
morphemes join to form words.
Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit in language,
that meets three criteria. 1.It is a word or a part of word
that has a meaning. 2. It cannot be divided into smaller
meaningful parts without violation of its meaning. 3. It
recurs in differing verbal environments with a relatively
stable meaning.
Sometimes, a particular morpheme may be represented
not by the same morph but by different morphs in different
environments. Such different representations of a
morpheme are called allomorphs.
What is the morph?
The term morph means shape. Any minimal phonetic
form that has meaning is morph. Those morphs which
belong to the same morpheme are called allomorphs
of that morpheme.(Morphs defined as the
phonological segments with a particular shape).
Plural morphemes and past
morphemes
Plural morpheme:
Allomorphs:
/ iz / in the case of words ending in /s/, /z/,/∫ /, /ᶾ/, /t∫/, /dᶾ/.
e.g. buses, vases, bushes, churches, judges.
/ s/ in the case of words ending in a voiceless consonant except ( ∫, s,
t∫). E.g. cats, caps.
/ z / in the case of words ending in voiced sounds except (z, ᴈ, dᴈ).
e.g. boys, bags.
Past morpheme:
/t/ after morphs ending in voiceless sounds
except(/t/). E.g. booked, pushed.
/d/ after morphs ending in voiced sounds except
(/d/). E.g. loved, bagged.
/id/ after morphs ending in /t/ and /d/. E.g.
wanted, wedded.
Morphology Recap
*Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in language.
Free morpheme: It is independent words.
Bound morpheme: It must attach to a free.
*Derivational morpheme: can change the category of the
word it’s attached to. E.g. edit……………… editor.
*Inflectional morpheme: Cannot change the category of the
word it attaches to, only adds grammatical information. E.g.
goes, walked, eating.
Ordering rules
*A word is not just a sequence of morphemes. Each word has
internal structure.
*Morphemes are added in a strict order reflecting a hierarchy
within the word.
For example the word “unsystematic”
If we put it together step by step, we could have : Noun + un=
Unsystem.
However, this results in a nonexistent word, as the order
violates the hierarchy.
*”Unsystematic”: Noun + atic = systematic
“un” + adjective = unsystematic.
*The first step attaches a derivational suffix “atic” to the
(free) root noun. This forms an adjective.
*Second step takes this adjective and attaches a derivational
prefix “un”, creating a new word, with the same category.
Tree structure
Tree structure of the word “Unsystematic”.
Adjective
Un
Derivational
Adjective
Noun
system
atic
Derivational
Exercise:
What types of word? We can divide words into two broad
types: Content words and function words.
Content words:
*Nouns
*Verbs
*Adjectives
*Adverbs
Function words:
Pronouns
Conjunctions
Auxiliaries
Prepositions
etc.
Morphological Classification
Morphological classification will help you to understand
exceptions and different occurrences of morphemes.
1.Homophonous morphemes: sound the same, although their
morphological function and visual realization may be different.
2. Discontinuous morphemes: It does not appear in one
continuous string in a word, but is split up into fragments. e.g.
“ge-and –t” in the German word “ge-reis-t”. Still, both parts
belong together.
3. A portmanteau morpheme: It is the result of a fusion of two
other morphemes. e.g. the French word “au” is a fusion of the
former morphemes “a” and “le”.
4. Unique morphemes: Morphemes that by themselves,
meaningless and gain meaning only in combination with other
morphemes. e.g. “mit” in transmit.
Exercise:
What do we call the rules that relates words? Words can be
related to other words, e.g. “happy”- “unhappy”. The rules that
relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules.
Exercise:
What are the morphemes of the word doors? In the word “doors”
there are two morphemes: “door” and “-s”. The morpheme door
can be used by itself, so it is called a Free morpheme. But the
morpheme “s” cannot be used by itself. Therefore, “-s” is called a
Bound morpheme.
Exercise:
What are the kinds of affixes? Morphemes added to free forms to
make other free forms are called affixes. There are four kinds of
affixes:
1.Prefixes (at beginning) “un-” in unable.
2. Suffixes (at end) “-ed” in walked.
3. Circumfixes (at both ends) “en—en” in enlighten.
4. Infixes (in the middle) “bloody” in in-bloody-credible.
Inflection: There are two kinds of inflection: The declension of
nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. And the conjugation of verbs.
There is a set of morphological rules which we apply in order to
form the correct tenses or cases. We combine free morphemes
with bound morphemes, the later marking tense, gender, number,
case, and so.
Word formation: Word formation can be divided into sections:
Derivation, Compounding and other process of word formation.
1.Derivation: There are morphemes in English that allow us to
change words. These are derivational morphemes: new words
are derived in the process. Derivational morphemes are affixes. If
affixes are added to the front of a word, called prefixes like in-, a. If they are attached to the end of the word, they are called
suffixes, such as –able, -ish. By changing one element, new
classes of words can be produced.
Noun to adjective:
Boy + ish = boyish. Virtu + ous= virtuous. Elizabeth + an=
Elizabethan. Alcohol + ic = alcoholic.
Verb to Noun:
Acquitt + al = acquittal. Clear + ance = clearance. Confer + ence = conference.
Predict + ion =prediction.
Adjective to adverb:
Exact + ly = exactly. Quiet + ly = quietly.
Noun to Verb:
Moral + ize = moralize. Vaccin + ate = vaccinate. Brand + ish = brandish.
No change in classes:
a + moral = amoral. Mono + theism monotheism. ex + wife = ex-wife. sub +
minimal = sub minimal.
2.Compounding: We may also create new words by combining two free
morphemes are called compound.
The initial morpheme is called the head of the compound, the following is called
the body. e.g, black + bird = a black bird.
There are various possible combinations of English compounds:
Adjective + Adjective:
bitter + sweet = bitter sweet.
Noun + Adjective:
Head + strong = head strong.
Adjective + Noun:
Poor + house = poor house.
Noun + Noun:
Rain + bow = rain bow.
Verb + Adjective:
Carry + all = carry all.
Adjective + Verb:
High + born = high born.
Verb + Noun:
Pick + pocket = pick pocket.
Noun + Verb:
Spoon + feed = spoon feed.
Verb + Verb:
Sleep + walk = sleep walk.
3. Other process of word formation: There are
also other ways f creating new words.
Invention: e.g, xerox, exxon.
Acronym: NATO, Unicef, Ilo.
Reduplication: zigzag, chitchat.
Blending: smog, brunch.
Clipping: bus, auto, flu.
Exercise: Write what you know about forming
some English words.
The following are pairs of English words:
Adjective
Verb
Dark
darken
Verb
Noun
sing
singer
dance
dancer
compute
computer
Adjective
Verb
yellow
yellow
brown
brown
green
green
Word Classes and Sentence Functions:
Traditional grammars often begin with a classification of
word classes. There are following classes including examples:
1.nouns: communicator, captain.
2. Pronouns: I, you, he, which.
3. Adjectives: fast, deep, many.
4. Verbs: see, retire, laugh.
5. Prepositions: on, in, at.
6. Conjunctions: and, but, because.
7. Adverbs: much, deservedly, partly.
8. Interjections: oh, ah.
9. Articles: the, a.
10. Numerals: one, two, three.
Exercise: What we call the combination of two
morphemes?
The combination of two free forms is called a
compound:
Adjective + Noun = noun. Black + bird = black bird.
Meaning: a particular kind of bird.
Verb + Verb =Noun. Sleep + walk =sleep walk.
Meaning: someone who walks and sleeps at the
same time.
Noun + Noun = noun. Window + painter = window
painter.
Meaning: Someone who paints windows.
Some References
Anderson, S, 1992: A- Morphology. Cambridge.
Aronoff, M, 1979. Word Formation Generative
Grammar. MIT press.
Carstairs – MacCarthy, A, 1992. Current
Morphology. Routledge.
Katamba, F, 1993, MacMillan.
Keelin@ling.ed.ac.uk, 2012. Morphology and
Syntax.
SYNTAX
Syntax: Syntax deals with the sentence structure. E.g., word
order within the sentence. Syntax and morphology together
make grammar.
Branches of Syntax:
language as a 1.Descriptive syntax: Some linguists look at
human behavior that should be described as it is through
observation first and analysis then, this called descriptive syntax.
2. Prescriptive syntax: In contrast, some other linguists insist that
their role is not merely to describe syntax as it is, but to describe
it as it should be.
3. Historical syntax: Like other braches of linguistics, syntax may
be historical if it traces the development of syntax along a certain
era.
4. Comparative syntax: It may be comparative if it deals with
syntactic comparison of two languages or more. Syntax may be
general if it deals with languages in general or may be special if it
deals with one specific language.
Types of Sentence Classification
There are several ways to sentence classification. First, the
classification may be based on the speaker’s motive and
intention, this called psychological classification. Second, the
classification may be based on sentence structure, this called
structural classification. Third, the sentence may be
classified according to its beginning, this called initial
classification.
Psychological Classification: According to the psychological
classification of sentences, we may have the following types:
1.Informative sentence: Here the speaker wants to tell
someone something, give information, or express his
opinions, feelings, attitudes: e.g.
His father left yesterday.(information)
I do care for you.(feelings)
You had better postpone the game.(opinion)
The Arabs must unite themselves.(attitude)
2.Interrogative sentence: Here the sentence producer asks about
someone, time, place, instrument, reason, manner, or anything
else:
Who did it?(person)
When did he arrive? (time)
Where is he? (place)
What did you write with? (Instrument)
Why is he late? (reason)
How did she swim? (manner)
3. Exclamatory sentence: Here the sentence producer expresses
his surprise or admiration. E.g.
What a car this is?
4. Imperative sentence: Here the speaker or the writer offers a
request or gives a command depending on the speaker-hearer
relationship: e.g.
Open the door, please. (request)
Do it now. (command).
Structural Classification: Structurally, English sentences may
be classified as follows:
1.Simple sentence: It is a sentence with one subject and one
predicate. E.g.
John is a clever boy.
2. Compound sentence: It is a sentence which consists of
two simple sentences or more conjoined with a coordinating
conjunction. E.g.
He studied hard, but he could not pass.
3. Complex sentence: It is a sentence of a main clause and
one subordinate clause or more, which may be a noun
clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause: e.g.
He knows why they are late. (noun clause)
This is the driver whose car was stolen. (adjective clause)
He phoned when he arrived. (adverb clause)
Initial Classification: According to the initial word
of the sentence, sentences are of two different
types:
1.Verbal sentences: If they start with a verb. Such
sentences do not exist in all languages and
certainly not in English. Arabic has such verbal
sentences .
2. Nominal sentences: If they start with a noun,
which is the case with all English sentences in their
deep structure. E.g.
The teacher has come early.
Sentence Correctness
There are two different concepts related to sentence correctness. The first,
is syntactic correctness(SC): the sentence is to be syntactically correct
regardless of its content. The second is information trueness(IT): the
content is to be real and actual regardless of syntax. Examples:
1.The capital of France is Paris.
2. The capital of France is Rome.
3. * The capital of France are Paris.
4. * The capital of France are Rome.
Sentence (1) obviously has both syntactic correctness and information
trueness. Sentence (2) is syntactically correct, but informationally false (IF).
Sentence (3) is syntactically wrong(SW), but informationally true. Sentence
(4) is both syntactically wrong and informationally false.
Therefore, sentences may be one of these types with regard to
correctness and trueness:
1.SC + IT
2. SC + IF
3. SW + IT
4. SW + IF
Syntactic Patterns
A pattern is the syntactic design which underlies a sentence. Every
sentence has one pattern behind it, but every pattern can show
itself through billions of different sentences.
Look at these patterns:
1.Subject(S) + Verb(V) + Object(O)
Tom + ate + the apple.
2. S + V + O + O
He + told + me + a story.
3. S + V
The child + is sleeping.
4. S + V + Adverb of place.
John + was + there.
5. S + V + Subject Complement(Cs)
John + seems + happy.
6. S + V + O + Object Complement(Co)
They + found + him + guilty.
The above six patterns are called basic patterns or
kernel patterns, from which we may derive
hundreds of secondary patterns such as:
1.Auxiliary(Aux) + S + V + ….
Can + he + do + it?
2. S + Aux + NOT + V + …
He + can + not + do + it.
Meaning of the Sentence
There are two meaning of the sentence:
(A) Lexical meaning: The lexical meaning determined by the
words of the sentence.
(B) Grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning
consists of these four factors:
1. Word order. E.g. John hit Tom and Tom hit John are two
sentences with the same words, but in two different orders.
2. Function words. Such as: articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, and auxiliaries.
3. Intonation: The sentence John lost his key, may be
pronounced as a statement with a /↘/ intonation pattern or
as a yes-no question with a /↗/ intonation pattern.
4. Suffixes. Suffixes help the receiver understand the words
by giving clues about the word class and word function in the
sentence.
Ambiguity of meaning: The sentence meaning may be ambiguous
for two reasons:
(A) Lexical ambiguity. A word may have two meanings or more.
(B) Grammatical ambiguity. A sentence may be ambiguous,
because its grammatical structure has two possible explanation or
analyses.
The following sentences grammatically ambiguous, with the
two possible meanings:
1. She made him a cake.
a. She made a cake for him to eat.
b. He himself became a cake.
2. Tom saw the woman with a telescope.
a. He used a telescope to see her.
b. She was carrying a telescope when he saw her.
3. Visiting professors may be useful.
a. To visit professors is useful.
b. Professor who visit universities are useful.
Definitions of Word classes
We need definition based on the function of words
within a sentence.
* Verbs: Finite verbs are verbs which indicate the
tense, person, number of an element in the sentence.
e.g. She dreams of retirement.
I walked home yesterday.
* We also have verb forms which don’t express tense –
infinitive.
e.g. Harry wants to leave the country.
In the future tense, we also use the infinitive form, •
but without “to”. e.g. Keelin will eat the chocolate cake
Verbs (V):
Keelin will eat the chocolate cake later.
* Here, we have two verbs – what’s going on?
The “will” is known as an auxiliary verb.
“Will” is telling us information about the tense, but “eat” is the main verb.
* English is an SVO ( subject verb object) language, so if we have a
declarative sentence, the verb can usually be found directly after the
subject ( which tends to be an NP).
Nouns (N):
We have multiple kinds of nouns, with multiple distinctions
* A noun that can take a plural is known as a count noun e.g. house –
houses, cat - cats
* Nouns cannot be pluralised uncountable nouns e.g. water, gold.
* Abstract nouns e.g. luck, love, hate, justice
* Concrete nouns e.g. bottle, apple
* Proper nuns e.g. Fahad, Ali, tree
* Mass nouns e.g. team, group
Adjective(Adj): Adjectives qualify a noun or noun phrase.
* One way to test for adjectives is superlatives. e.g. cold-coldercoldest, big-bigger-biggest
* Some adjectives are irregular: good-better-best
* Some adjectives add more and most: more interesting, the
most interesting.
* There are two kinds of adjectives:
1. Predicative adjective. e.g. John is ill, keelin is blonde, Chrissy
2. Attributive adjective. e.g. a tall man, a blonde woman, an ill
man.
Adverbs(Adv): Adverbs qualify a verb.
e.g. Saeed quickly ate all the cake.
* Some exceptions:
Chrissy often laughs. Simon presented well.
Prepositions(P): Prepositions can express ideas of place (in, on),
time (during, throughout), direction (towards). Preposition
usually combine with a noun. e.g. John ate cake in London.
Phrase Structure: We have rules about Noun Phrase,
Verb Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Prepositional Phrase.
Np → (Det) N
PP → P NP
VP → V NP
AP → A NP
Phrase Trees:
NP
PP
Det
N
The
cat
P
on
N
table
Sentence Structure: This allows us to build up sentences from
phrases.
If I want to analyse the sentence, “the cat sat on the mat”, I look
at the internal phrases
→ The cat sat on the mat
Det N V P Det N
* NP VP PP Np
Constituency: A sentence is divided into groups of words. The
connections between words in one group is closer than between
words belonging to different groups.
* A group of words that cling together is called a constituent.
* To test whether a group of words is a constituent, we have
three tests:
1. Replacement/Substitution: a constituent can be replaced by a
single word.
2. Movement: a constituent as a whole, can be placed in a
different position in a sentence.
3. Clefting: Change sentences to “it was….”
Constituency tests
Replacement tests: We can use slightly different tests to test
the constituency of different phrase types.
* NPs can be replaced by pronouns
* PPs can be replaced by adverbs
* Adj Ps can be replaced by “so”
* VPs can be replaced by “do so”
Examples:
If I want to check whether “a car” is a constituent of
“bought” in the sentence “Keelin bought a car” I use:
* Replacement: “Keelin bought it”
* Movement: “A car, keelin bought”
* Clefting: “It was a car that keelin bought”
All of these new sentences are grammatical. This means
that “a car” is a constituent of “bought”
Examples:
I want to test whether “over the hill” is a
constituent of the verb in the sentence “She went
over the hill”
* Replacement: “She went there”
* Movement: “Over the hill she went”
* Clefting: “It was over the hill she went”
All of these sentences are grammatical, and so I
know that “over the hill” is a constituent of the
verb “went”.
She went over the hill
[NP] [VP {PP}]
MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX 423
LEVEL SEVEN
Prepared by: Dr. Ahmed Benyo
References
1. Morphology and syntax. Keelin@ling.ed.ac.uk
2. An Introduction to Linguistics. Pushpindal.
New Delhi