Chapters 10-12
Social Stratification
and
Political Organization
Social Control


Exists to ensure a certain degree of social
conformity
Some people may resist conformity
Norms
Laws
Most non-state societies have a
comparatively high degree of personal
security…why?

Small size of the bands and villages

The central importance of domestic groups and
kinship in their social organization

The absence of marked inequalities in access
to technology and resources
Descent Groups and Social
Organization Beyond Kin

Clans and other complex descent groups
expand the basic family relationships of kin
groups to provide a wider set of social
structures welded together by obligations

Sources of conflict between these larger
groups are numerous
Practices and institutions to mitigate these
conflicts become necessary

Social Control in Small-scale
Societies




In foraging societies, formal laws are rare
Punishment is often through naming and
shaming
Punishment is legitimized through belief in
supernatural forces
Capital punishment is rare
Social Control in States



Increased specialization of tasks relating to law
and order
Process is more formal and based on law
Use of capital punishment
Political Anthropology
Who has it;
who doesn’t
Morality
and law
Governments
Political Anthropologists
address the area of
human behavior and
thought related to power
Social conflict
and social control
Political and
religious power
Degrees
of power
Bases of power
Abuses of power
Social Inequality and the Law
Critical legal anthropologists examine
the role of law in maintaining power
relationships through discrimination
against indigenous people, women
and minorities.
Why Kin Groups Aren’t The Answer
to All Our Problems



Optimal Size of Kin Groups is small, about 200
people
Kinship ethics don’t always levy adequate
sanctions (there are social reasons against it)
Long-term and immediate problems in
relationships between kin groups are difficult to
solve: Intermarriage is the only really
permanent “glue”
Social Conflict







Interpersonal conflict
Banditry
Feuding
Ethnic conflict
Revolution
Warfare
Nonviolent conflict
Interpersonal Conflict



Covers verbal arguments to murder
Between neighbors over resources or territory,
e.g. Gwembe Valley
Between neighbors over dogs, e.g. middleclass Americans
Feuding



The most universal form of inter-group
aggression
Based on revenge
Some cultures experience more feuding
because of economic change
Yanomami
RAID TO CAPTURE
WOMEN
SHORTAGE OF
FEMALES
POLYGYNY
The Waiteri
Complex
FIERCE MALE
BABIES FAVORED
FEMALE
INFANTICIDE
Nonviolent Conflict

Gandhi
–
–
–
–

Non-violent resistance
Public fasting
Strikes
Celibacy
Weapons of the weak
–
Foot dragging, desertion, false compliance, humor
Mobilizing Public Opinion




Within Kin-Based systems disputes are settled
on the basis of who has the most kin support
(public opinion)
The general principle of dispute settlement,
and leadership, is mobilization of public opinion
How far claims can be pressed depends on an
individual’s willingness to suffer social penalties
and his/her social backing
Example: Inuit Song Contests
Social Control of Behavior
Ways societies deal with abnormal behavior and
conflict:
 Gossip and ridicule
 Fear of witchcraft accusations
 Avoidance
 Supernatural sanctions
Law



Law is found in every society.
In complex societies, functions of law belong to
legal institutions, such as courts.
Law addresses conflicts that would otherwise
disrupt community life.
Aboriginal Youth
and Justice
• More likely to receive the most
severe outcomes from criminal
justice decision-makers than white
youth
• More likely to be classified as
“undependable”
• More likely to appear in court
rather than Children’s Aid Panels
- Gale 1990
Politics and the Social Contract
Social Contract - a public contract where
people agree to band together for some
purpose - often highly structured in the
realm of what we call "politics“
Politics - the spatial aspect of social force

Institutions control the use of force within
a territorial framework (chiefdom or state)
Politics

The power to bring about results through
authority or influence
–

through possession of forceful means
A human universal?
–
–
No, politics only emerged with increase in private
property
Yes, there is no boundary between how kinship and
political organizations organize power
In Political Analysis You Must
Understand:






the territorial extent and organization of the society
how space and resources are divided
the social system through which force is allocated
to and by different individuals playing different
roles
how that system is viewed by those living in it
the institutional control of force by warfare: the
maintenance of territory from outsiders
the institutional control of force by law
enforcement: maintenance of territory from
insiders
Egalitarian Societies



No individual or group has more access to
resources, power, or prestige than any other.
No fixed number of social positions for which
individuals must compete.
Associated with bands and tribes.
Shamans and Public Opinion
Shamans: Part-time religious, healing, or magic



specialists
Shamans may attribute forces to enemies, both
within and without
Shamans may prescribe social solutions in the
guise of magic
Shamans may organize the group around
perceptions and supernatural commands.
Headmanship
Headmen are individuals whose opinion
carries more weight than others. They
lead by example
 A good headman can judge the prevailing
opinions and gauge his statements to
them
 Motivation by example is the chief tool of
the headman

The Leopard Skin Chief





The Leopard Skin Chiefs are an institution among the
Nuer (Sudan).
Mediate the disputes arising out of homicide
Can ritually cleanse
the murderer
Negotiates
compensation
Curses those
who would break
the settlement
Non-kin Associations: Sodalities
Sodality: A non-kin group or association within a society
organized around kinship groups
 Age Grade Associations
–
–


Provides convenient way to teach youth
Allocates civic responsibilities
Single Sex Associations (often combined with other
factors, e.g. age)
Agreement or Voluntary Groups
–
–
–
Vary widely in form
Organized for almost any purpose imaginable
Slight differences in the structures of parallel organizations
Rank Society




Institutionalized differences in prestige but no
restrictions on access to basic resources.
Individuals obtain what they need to survive
through their kinship group.
Associated with horticulture or pastoral
societies with a surplus of food.
Associated with chiefdoms.
Stratified Society



Formal, permanent, social and economic
inequality.
Some people are denied access to basic
resources.
Characterized by differences in standard of
living, security, prestige and political power.
Stratified Society



Economically organized by market systems
(usually).
Based on intensive cultivation (agriculture) and
industrialism.
Often associated with a form of political
organization called the state.
Social Stratification
Societies place people in categories. Social
groups relate differently to each other
depending on their status.
Achieved Status
Ascribed Status
Class
Race
Ethnicity
Caste
Dimensions of Stratification
Power—control resources in one’s own
interest.
 Wealth—accumulation of material
resources or access to the means of
producing these resources.
 Prestige—social honor or respect.

Ascribed Vs. Achieved Status

Ascribed Status
Social position into which a person is
born. (sex, race, kinship group)

Achieved Status
Social position that a person chooses or
achieves. (professor, criminal, artist)
Social Class in the United States



Status depends on occupation, education, and
lifestyle.
“The American Dream,” is based on the
democratic principle of equality and opportunity
for all.
Social class in the United States correlates
with attitudinal, behavioral, and lifestyle
differences.
Caste System



System of stratification based on birth.
Movement from one caste to another is not
possible.
Castes are hereditary, endogamous, ranked in
relation to one another and usually associated
with a traditional occupation.
Hindu Caste System
Four caste categories
1. Brahmins - priests and scholars
2. Kshatriyas - ruling and warrior caste
3. Vaisyas - the merchants
4. Shudras - menial workers and artisans
5. Harijans – “untouchables”
U.S. Racial Stratification Systems



Race is constructed on the basis of skin color
and presumed ancestry.
Divides people into “blacks” and “whites”
ignoring the reality of the skin color spectrum.
By the 20th century, the system of race in the
American south was very similar to the caste
system in India.
Race Stratification in the U.S. and
Brazil




Two largest multiracial societies in the
Americas.
In both societies the legacy of slavery
continues in the form of racial inequality.
Brazil: 45% of nonwhite families and 25% of
white families live below the poverty line.
U.S.: 30% of nonwhite families and 8% of
white families live below the poverty line.
Types of Social Groups






Friendship
Clubs and fraternities
Counterculture groups
Work groups
Cooperatives
Activist groups
Friendship
amongst
the urban
poor
Institutional
relationships
(e.g. prison)
A cultural universal
Friendship
Sometimes
based on
shared storytelling
Can be gender
and race
segregated
Usually between
social equals
Clubs and Fraternities



Define membership on shared identity
Can serve economic and political roles
Men’s clubs featuring male-male bonding
activities are common
–
–
often involve objectification and mistreatment of
women
some US college fraternities
Counterculture Groups


Feature in industrialized societies
Members desire to be identified with a special
group
–
youth gangs



–
initialization rituals
a leader
special clothing
body modification groups
Work Groups



Organized to perform particular task
Prominent in horticultural and agricultural
communities
Often made up of
youth groups
Cooperatives



Surpluses are shared among the members
One person, one vote
Farmer cooperatives
–

e.g. in western India
Craft cooperatives
–
e.g. in Panama
Activist Groups

Formed with the goal of protesting certain
conditions such as political repression or
human rights violations
–

e.g. CO-MADRES
Also formed because of concerns about
personal problems
–
e.g. AA
Civil Society

Diverse interest groups that operate outside
the government to organize aspects of life
–
–
–
the Church
Trade Unions
Environmental groups
Race
“We conclude that the concept of
“race” has no validity as a biological
category in the human species.
Because it homogenizes widely
varying individuals, it impedes
research and understanding of the
true nature of human biological
variations.”
AAA Statement on Race, 1996
Types of Political Organizations
Headman
Bands
Headman / Big-man
Tribes
Chiefdoms
States
Chief
King/Queen/
President
Band Societies ~ Summary



Related by blood or marriage
Live together and are loosely associated with a
territory in which they forage
Egalitarian
Bands






Foraging groups
Comprises a small group of households
Between 20 and a few hundred people
Membership is flexible
Leader is “first among equals”
Leader has no power, only authority and
influence
Band Societies: Leadership




Decision-making is by consensus.
Leaders are older men and women.
Leaders cannot enforce their decisions; They
can only persuade.
Sharing and generosity are important sources
of respect.
Band Societies: Social Order




Maintained by gossip, ridicule, and avoidance.
Violations of norms are sins.
Offenders may be controlled through ritual
means such as public confessions.
Offender is defined as a patient rather than a
criminal.
Tribes ~ Summary




Members consider themselves descended
from the same ancestor.
Found primarily among pastoralists and
horticulturalists.
Egalitarian
Leadership: Bigman
Big-Man Societies
Big Man: A local entrepreneur who successfully
mobilizes and manipulates wealth on behalf of
his group in order to hold feasts and enhance
his status and rank relative to other leaders in
the region.
He has no formal authority or power, nor does
he necessarily have more wealth.
Tribal Societies





Horticulture and pastoralism dominant,
sometimes limited agriculture
Comprises several bands, each with similar
lifestyle, language and territory
Leadership combines both achieved and
ascribed statuses
Leader resolves conflict
Leader relies on authority and influence
Big-man, big-woman
• Personalistic, favor-based leadership
• Heavy responsibilities in regulating
internal affairs
• Often, sons of big-men are big-men
too
• Common in Papua New Guinea
- Sahlins 1963, Strathern 1971
Chiefdoms ~ Summary






Allied tribes and villages under one leader
More centralized and complex
Heritable systems of rank
Social stratification
Chiefship is an “office”
Achievement is a measure of success
Chiefdom Societies
Characteristics:
 Monumental architecture
 Distinct ceremonial centers
 Elaborate grave goods reflect high social
status
 Larger settlements by smaller villages
 Cultivators and pastoralists
Definition of a State

A formal organization of roles in which legal and
military authority is vested and in which authority
is considered by the members of the state to be its
primary function

A special group charged with allocating authority
to use physical force to achieve peace and
conformance with law and custom and to maintain
territorial integrity against external threats
State Societies




Central government with monopoly over the
use of force.
More populous, heterogeneous, and powerful
than other political organizations.
Able to organize large populations for
coordinated action.
Defend against external threats.
Characteristics of States







Define citizenship and rights
Maintain law and order
Maintain standing armies
Keep track of their citizens
Have the power the tax
Power to manipulate information
Hierarchical and patriarchal
Political Change in States Today
Nation v. State
The Kurds
Transnational
Nations
Puerto Rico
Democratization
Soviet Union
Women in politics
Globalization
Become “like men”?
WAR
Armed conflict between groups of people who
constitute separate territorial teams or
political communities


Some groups seldom, if ever, war while with
others it is endemic
Interpersonal violence and armed conflict are a
tendency of all societies when certain internal
or external pressures arise
WAR IS:




A significant factor in demographic and political
change within the last 10,000 years
Attested to by a great deal of archaeological
evidence worldwide
Not innate per se, but in historical terms it
seems to be one of the universally recurring
realities of human existence
all Hell, as General W.T. Sherman once noted
Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers


Depending on the circumstances, low-level conflict
can and does occur between foragers
Yet hunter-gatherers seldom try to annihilate each
other. Why?
–
–
–
The loss of 2 male individuals per generation in a band of
30 represents more than 10 percent of all adult male
deaths
Small bands cannot sustain fatalities at these levels and
survive.
Protection of women from violent death is even more
critical from the biological standpoint. Why?
Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers


Armed conflict between simple huntergatherers usually takes the form of
personal feuds between individuals;
typically older men who have long-standing
conflicts.
Just as in other social animals, conflict
between groups of hunter-gatherers is
more frequent during periods of population
pressure and environmental stress.
Warfare Among Sedentary Village
Societies

Warfare is much more common among
sedentary populations than with foragers
–
–

The more people have invested in fixed
elements in their environment the more likely
they are to defend it.
Sedentary groups cannot resolve disputes by
moving off to another location.
Example: Among the Yanomami almost 33%
of all male deaths and 7% of female deaths
were due to armed conflict.
Why War?

War as instinct:
–
–
–
–
War is innate.
Not all societies are warlike, and most societies
only war occasionally.
There are alternatives to war which are often
chosen.
If it were deeply instinctive, the complex means
of conflict resolution and social organization
would not evolve.
Why War?

War as sport and Entertainment
–
–
–
–
–
Martial arts, war movies, war games, guns and military
paraphernalia, are all very popular. People are fascinated with
war
In the United States the majority of people do not have any
concept of what war is really about. And, in large part, some of
modern warfare has been “sterilized” through the use of standoff weaponry.
No one who has been in direct combat views it as
entertainment. As historian Stephen Ambrose puts it, it is the
worst experience a human being can find themselves in.
In the past people had to kill others with their bare hands. It
was brutal, direct, and required an immense amount of
courage.
War is terrible destructive, especially to non-industrial societies.
The cost in resources is very high in most cases.
Why War?

War as revenge:
–
–
–
This is frequently the stated motivation in
many non-state conflicts.
However, all societies have ways to circumvent
war for revenge, and all societies have ways in
which the aggrieved parties can choose not to
retaliate indefinitely
So revenge may be an emic explanation, but it
is not an underlying and universal cause for
warfare.
Why War?

War as a struggle for Reproductive Success
–
–
The warriors get the girls, and the successful warriors
(who live, and gain prestige as well as plunder) get more
of the girls. Warriors have status and are intimidating to
others.
HOWEVER, those who live by the sword usually die by
the sword. Men who are aggressive warriors typically
die young, and are often pre-occupied with the conflicts
to the detriment of their family life.
Why War?

War as a Struggle for material benefits
–
–
–
In general warfare is expensive in terms of
human costs, but the larger the society the more
able they are to absorb these costs.
The immediate material gains of war may be
significant despite the casualties.
less than 1% of male deaths in Europe and the
U.S. have been battlefield deaths in the last
century, and that includes WWI where almost ¼
of the Entire European male population died,
and WWII where over half a billion people were
killed.
Why War: Conclusions

Band and village people go to war when
they lack alternative solutions to conflicts
related to procuring resources in response
to population pressure and environmental
depletion.

Chiefdoms and States go to war because it
is the primary means by which the ruling
elite solidifies control, gains resources, and
acquires territory.