Nature – refers to the belief that it is a person’s genetic, inherent character that determines development
Nurture – applies to the notion that it is the sum total of experiences and the environment that determine development

Maturation – the process of growth whereby a body matures regardless of, and relatively independent of, intervention such as exercise, experience, or environment

Psychoanalytic theory – is about personality development and emotional problems. It looks at development in terms of internal drives that are often unconscious, or hidden from our awareness

People possess three basic drives: the sexual drive, survival instincts, and a drive for destructiveness.
The personality is the most important aspect of development, more central to human growth than language, perception, or cognition. How children are treated determine whether they develop healthy or abnormal personalities.

Stage
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
Age (years)
Birth to 2
2-3
3-6
6-12
12-18
Description/Major Area
Mouth (sucking, biting) source of pleasure
Eating and Teething
Bowel movements source of pleasure
Toilet training
Genitals source of pleasure
Sex role identification and conscience development
Sexual forces dormant
Energy put into schoolwork and sports
Genitals source of pleasure
Stimulation and satisfaction from relationships

Stage
Stage One
Stage Two
Stage Six
Stage Three
Stage Four
Stage Five
Stage Seven
Stage Eight
Description
The newborn
Toddlers
Childhood
School
Adolescence
Young adulthood
Adults
Old Age
Challenge
Trust vs. Mistrust
Strength
Hope
Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Willpower
Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Competence
Identity vs. Role
Diffusion
Fidelity
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Generativist vs.
Stagnation
Love
Care
Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom

Behaviorists often insist that only what can actually be observed will be accepted as fact.
Only behavior can be treated, not feelings or internal states.

Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist, known for his idea of classical conditioning. (Classical conditioning is one stimulus is repeatedly paired with another so that the second one brings forth a response. Ex: Children can be trained to put toys away when a clean up song is played.)
John B. Watson – American theorist, translated
Pavlov’s animal experiments into human terms.
Watson, showed a boy a white rat, then sounded a loud noise, and after only seven pairings, the boy cringed at the sight of the rat without the bell sounding at all.

Edward Thorndike – known for the stimulus response technique:
The kind of psychological learning, first characterized in the behaviorist theory of Pavlov, that takes place when pairing something that rousts or incites an activity with the activity itself in a way that the stimulus (such as a bell) will trigger a response (such as salivating in anticipation of food that usually arrives after the bell is sounded)

B.F. Skinner – Skinner said that there is no behavior that cannot be modified.
Albert Bandura – Developed another type of learning theory, called social cognition. Bandura says that children acquire most of their social concepts from models they observe in the course of daily life.
Operant Condition – A form of learning in which an organism’s behavior is shaped by what is reinforced.
It focuses on the response rather than the stimulus.
(Ex: Most people increase what gives them pleasure and decrease what gives them displeasure.)

Jean Piaget – Identified four major stages of cognitive development: sensory motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Schemas – a plan, scheme, or framework that helps make and organizational pattern from which to operate; cognitive schemas are used for thinking.

Assimilation - a cognitive theory concept in which one of two processes people use to learn and incorporate new information; the person takes new information and puts it together with what is already known in order to “assimilate” the new information intellectually, such as when a toddler shakes a toy magnet first, as with all other toys, in order to get to know this new object. Children usually first try to put new experiences into the “schema,” or categories, they already know and use.

Accommodation – a cognitive theory concept in which one of two processes people use to learn and incorporate new information.
Equilibration – to balance equally; the thinking process by which a person “makes sense” and puts into balance new information with what is already known.

Lee Vygotsky – Focused on how values, beliefs, skills, and traditions are transmitted to the next generation. Much of learning takes place in play. Known for the concepts of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.

Multiple Intelligences – a theory of intelligence, proposed by Howard Gardner, that outlines several different kinds of intelligence, rather than the notion of intelligence as measured by standardized testing, such as the IQ.

• Musical intelligence
• Body-kinesthetic intelligence
• Logical-mathematical intelligence
• Linguistic intelligence
• Spatial intelligence
• Interpersonal intelligence
• Intrapersonal intelligence
• Naturalist intelligence

Humanism – theory that describes the conditions for health and well-being in a pyramid of human needs.
Abraham Maslow – focused on what motivated people to be well, successful, and mentally healthy.

Time sampling – an observation technique that involves observing certain behavior settings within a prescribed time frame.
Event sampling – an observation technique that involves defining the event to be observed and coding the event to record what is important to remember about it.

Discipline – ability to follow an example or to follow rules; the development of self-control or control in general, such as by imposing order on a group. In early childhood terms, discipline means everything adults do and say to influence children’s behavior.
Punishment – is a consequence for inappropriate behavior. To be effective, punishment should be related to the behavior and help children learn from the situation.

• Shames, frightens, and humiliates child
• Is physically and emotionally abusive
• Threatens children with the loss of affection
• Has consequences that are too long, too punitive, or postponed
• Has consequences that are often not related to the incident

Authoritative – associated with the highest levels of self-esteem, self-reliance, independence, and curiosity in children.
Provides a warm, loving atmosphere with clear limits and high expectations.

Authoritarian – High control and strict maturity demands combined with relatively low communication and nurturance. Authoritarian styles are dictatorial, expecting and demanding obedience, yet lacking warmth and affection.

Permissive – the reverse of authoritarian management style. There is a high level of warmth and affection but little control. Clear standards and rules are not set, nor are they reinforced consistently.

• Uninvolved -- "live and let live" philosophy of management. Children are allowed to do what they want, but they do not get support for what they do. In extreme cases, this can become neglect.