INTRODUCTION. DOSES,
WEIGHTS.
PRESCRIPTION STRUCTURE.
SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES FOR
THE INTRINSIC
APPLICATION DOSED BY SPOONS
Introduction
 Pharmacology - the science of the interaction of chemicals with
living organisms. In general pharmacology study drugs used for the
treatment and prevention of various diseases and pathological
conditions. One of the most important tasks of pharmacology is to
find new drugs.
As a biomedical science, pharmacology closely related to the
different areas of experimental and practical medicine. Thus,
pharmacology has a great influence on the development of many
other biomedical sciences, especially physiology and biochemistry.
For example, using Wegetotropona substances could reveal subtle
mechanisms of synaptic transmission is carried out with the
participation of neurotransmitters acetylcholine and
norepinephrine. Many complex functions of the central nervous
system have become available for the study due to psychotropic
drugs: the discovery of hallucinogenic drugs has led to the creation
of animal models of psychosis. For experimenters core value of
pharmacological agents is that they represent a great deal of
control many biochemical and physiological processes.
Determintion
 Very large value of Pharmacology for practical medicine. As a result, creating a large
range of high-performance products pharmacotherapy has become a universal
treatment for many diseases. Broader meaning in medicine have received funds,
depressing and stimulating the central and peripheral nervous system, raising and
lowering blood pressure, stimulates heart activity, breathing, regulating blood,
metabolism, etc. The important role played by antimicrobial and anti-parasitic drugs
used for the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases.
Progress pharmacology inevitably affects the development of clinical disciplines. Thus,
the emergence of tools for anesthesia, anesthetics, curariform funds
ganglioblokatorov and other drugs contributed to the success of surgery. A
qualitatively new stage in the development of mental health associated with the
discovery of psychotropic substances. Isolation and synthesis of hormonal methods
have significantly changed the results of treatment of patients with endocrine
diseases. Effective treatment of bacterial infections has become possible only after
receiving antibiotics and sulfa drugs. Organ transplant managed to carry out mainly in
connection with the creation of immunosuppressive agents. Such examples are many.
All of them indicate the paramount role of pharmacology in medicine today.
Progress pharmacology characterized by a continuous search for and creation of new
and better drugs. Drug development begins with research chemists and
pharmacologists, creative community that is absolutely necessary for "design" of new
drugs.
Definition
 The search for new drugs developed in the following areas.
1. Chemical synthesis of drugs
A. The direct synthesis:
1) reproduction of nutrients;
2) creation of anti-metabolites;
3) the modification of the molecules of compounds with known biological
activity;
4) a combination of structures of two compounds with the desired
properties;
5) synthesis based on the study of chemical transformations of the body.
B. empirical way:
1) random findings;
2) "screening".
II. Getting drugs from medicinal plants and isolation of individual
substances:
1) of animal origin;
2) of plant origin;
3) of the minerals.
 III. The selection of drugs, which are waste products of fungi and microorganisms.
General pharmacology
In general pharmacology are general patterns of pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamics of drugs. Pharmacokinetics (from the Greek. Pharmacon medicine, kineo - move) - this section pharmacology of absorption, distribution in the
body, deposit, metabolism and excretion of substances. The main content of the
pharmacodynamics (from the Greek. Pharmacon - medicine, dynamis - force) - the
biological effects of substances, as well as localization and the mechanism of their
action.
Effects of drugs result from their interaction with the body. In this regard, specifically
contemplated not only the basic properties of the substances determine their
physiological activity, but also dependence of the effect of conditions and the use of
these substances and the state of the body on which their action is directed.
Also discussed are the most important types of pharmacotherapy, as well as general
laws and toxic side effects of drugs.
Route of administration of drugs. Absorption
Application of medicaments for therapeutic or prophylactic purposes starts with their
introduction into the body or applying to the body surface. The route of
administration depend on the speed of onset of action, its severity and duration. In
some cases, the route of administration determines the nature of the active
ingredient.
The existing route of administration is generally divided into enteral (via the digestive
tract) and parenteral (bypassing the digestive tract).
 It is the introduction of enteral routes through the mouth, under the
tongue, buccal, in the duodenum, into the rectum (rectal).
The most common route of administration - through the mouth
(oral; per os). This is the most convenient and simple way of
introduction. Sterile preparation in this case not needed. Absorption
(absorption) of a number of substances (for example, acetylsalicylic
acid, barbiturates, and other weak electrolytes that are acidic in
nature) is part of the stomach (in the acidic environment of the
stomach, these compounds are found mainly in the non-ionized
(lipophilic) form and are absorbed by diffusion). However, the vast
majority of drug is absorbed mainly in the small intestine. This
favorable large suction surface of the intestinal mucosa (approx.
200 m2) and its intense perfusion.
 Known basic mechanisms of absorption:
1. Passive diffusion across the cell membrane. Determined by the gradient of
concentration of substances. In this way easily absorbed lipophilic (mostly
nonpolar) substance. The more lipophilic substances, they are more easily
penetrate through the cell membrane (so-called isolated facilitated
diffusion. It involves transport system functioning without energy loss).
2. Filtration through membrane pores. The pore diameter of the membrane
of the intestinal epithelium is small (about 0.4 nm). Therefore, water
diffuses therethrough, some ions and small hydrophilic molecules (e.g.,
urea).
3. Active transport (involved in this process of cell membrane transport
systems) is characterized by selectivity for certain compounds, the
possibility of competition between two substances in a single transport
mechanism saturability (at high concentrations), the possibility of transport
against a concentration gradient and energy expenditure (metabolic
poisons inhibit active transport) . Active transport provides hydrophilic
absorption of polar molecules, some inorganic ions, sugars, amino acids,
pyrimidines.
 4. When pinocytosis cell membrane invagination occurs with the consequent
formation of the bubble (vacuoles). Last full of liquid with entrained large molecules
of substances. Bubble migrates through the cytoplasm to the opposite side of the cell,
wherein the contents by exocytosis bubble is expelled.
These mechanisms of passage of substances through the membrane are universal in
nature and are not only important for the absorption of substances, but also for their
distribution in the body and excretion.
The main mechanism of drug absorption in the small intestine is passive diffusion.
Minor role played by active transport. Filtration through a cellular membrane pores
virtually irrelevant. Absorption of certain proteins and complex cyanocobalamin
(vitamin B12) to biermerin is apparently by pinocytosis.
Absorption from the small intestine is relatively slow. It depends on the functional
state of the intestinal mucosa and its motility and pH, the quantity and quality
characteristics of the intestinal contents. It is important to bear in mind that the
substance from the small intestine to the liver (where part of inactivated or excreted
in bile) and only then - in general circulation. Note that some substances inside
ineffective when assigning as degraded by the enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract
(e.g., insulin), as well as the particular reaction medium, especially in acidic
environment of the stomach (e.g., penicillin).
If the drug is destroyed by stomach acid or is irritating to the mucous membrane of
the stomach, it is prescribed in special dosage forms (capsules, pills) that are soluble
only in the small intestine.
 Absorption of substances regulated as a special membrane transporter - Pglycoprotein. It promotes the excretion of substances into the lumen of the intestine
and prevents their absorption.
P-glycoprotein pump is also blood-brain barrier, kidney, liver, placenta and other
tissues. Therefore, this transportation system affects many processes: absorption,
distribution, elimination.
Known inhibitors of P-glycoprotein - cyclosporin A, quinidine, verapamil, itraconazole,
and many others. There is evidence that rifampin, an inducer of this transporter.
Due to the fact that the substance developing a systemic effect only after getting into
the bloodstream, where it enters the tissue is provided, the term "bioavailability". It
reflects the amount of unchanged substance has reached the blood plasma, relative to
the initial dose. In this case the bioavailability of enterally value determined lossy
substance at its absorption from the digestive tract and first-pass hepatic barrier. To
assess the bioavailability usually measure the area under the curve, which reflects the
relationship between the concentration of the substance in the blood plasma and the
time since the rate is directly proportional to the number of substances introduced
into the systemic circulation. Also determine the maximum concentration of free
(active) of the substance in the blood plasma and the time required to achieve it.
Biodostupnost substance when administered intravenously as 100%. On bioavailability
can be judged by the release of the drug in the urine, provided it is not subject to
biotransformation. In some cases, the criterion may be the amount bioavailability
pharmacological effect if applicable its precise quantitative measurement.
 Deposition
After absorption of the substance into the blood and then to various
organs and tissues. Most drugs are unevenly distributed and only a small
part - relatively evenly (for example, some funds for inhalation
anesthesia). Significant impact on the distribution of substances have
biological barriers, which are found in the way of their distribution: the
capillary wall, cell (plasma) membrane, the blood-brain and placental
barriers.
Through the wall of the capillaries, which has the character of a porous
membrane (pore size in a person's average is 2 nm), the majority of
drugs takes place quite easily. Exception of plasma proteins and their
complexes with drugs. Hydrophilic compounds are readily soluble in
water, pass through pores of the capillary walls and fall into the
interstitial space. A protein-phospholipid cell membranes they
practically do not diffuse (inside the cells can enter only if participation
transport systems). Lipophilic compounds pass through the fine
capillary endothelium and the cell membrane.
 Difficult passage of many substances through the blood-brain
barrier. This is due to the structure of the capillaries of the
brain. Prezhde of their endothelium has pores through which
the capillaries extend to many common materials. In the
capillaries of the brain is practically no pinocytosis. Have a
certain value and glial elements (astroglia) lining the outer
surface of the endothelium and, obviously, playing the role of
an additional lipid membrane. After the blood-brain barrier
poorly polar compounds tested. Lipophilic molecules
penetrate into the brain tissue easily. Basically substances
pass through the blood-brain barrier by diffusion, and some
compounds - by active transport. There are some small parts
of the brain (the region epiphysis, posterior pituitary, and
others) in which the blood-brain barrier is practically
ineffective. It should also be borne in mind that in some
pathological conditions (e.g. inflammation of the meninges)
increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier.
 Some drugs (in particular, quinacrine), especially in large quantities in the cell detected
depot. Binding of the cells possibly due to protein, nucleoprotein and phospholipids.
Fat depots are of particular interest because they may be retained lipophilic compound (in
particular, some means for anesthesia).
Deposited drugs, usually at the expense of convertible bonds. Length of stay in the tissue
depots varies widely. Thus, some sulfonamides (sulfadimethoxine, etc.) form stable
complexes with plasma proteins, with which a considerable part of the length of their
associated actions. Very long trapped in the body of heavy metals ions.
Note that the distribution of substances not usually characterizes the direction of their
action. The latter depends on the sensitivity of tissues to them, i.e. the affinity of the drug
to those biological substrates, which determine the specificity of their action.
In clinical pharmacology often use the-apparent volume of distribution - Vd. It reflects the
hypothetical volume of liquid in which material is distributed (arbitrarily assumed that the
concentration in plasma and other body fluids the same).
The volume of distribution gives an indication of the fraction of a substance in the blood
plasma. For lipophilic compounds easily penetrate tissue barriers and having a broad
distribution (plasma, interstitial fluid, intracellular fluid in) are characterized by high value
Vd. If a substance mainly circulates in blood, Vd has low values. This parameter is
important for efficient dispensing of substances, as well as to determine the elimination
rate constant (Ke | jm) and "half-life" of a substance (t1 / 2).
 Chemical conversions (biotransformation, metabolism) of drugs in the body
Most drugs undergoes biotransformation in the body. Unchanged for
vysokogidrofilnyh mostly ionized compounds. Of lipophilic substances, with the
exception of funds for inhalation anesthesia, most of them in the chemical reactions in
the body does not enter. These light output in the same form in which have been
introduced. In the biotransformation of drugs involved many enzymes, of which the
most important role is played by the liver microsomal enzymes (located in the
endoplasmic reticulum). They are foreign to the body metabolize lipophilic
compounds (different structure), making them more hydrophilic. Substrate specificity
they do not. Are essential and different localization nemikrosomalnye enzymes (liver,
intestine and other tissues and plasma), especially in the case of hydrophilic
substances biotransformation.
Allocate two main types of drugs conversion: 1) metabolic transformation, and 2) the
conjugation. Metabolic transformation - is the transformation of substances due to
oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. Thus, oxidation are imipramine, ephedrine,
chlorpromazine, histamine, codeine. Oxidation occurs mainly due to the microsomal
mixed oxidase activity with the participation is necessary, oxygen, and cytochrome P450.
 Conjugation - is a biosynthetic process, accompanied by adherence
to the drug substance or its metabolites or grupirovok number of
chemical molecules endogenous compounds. For example,
methylation may be substances (histamine, catecholamines) or
acetylation (sulfanilamidy) interaction with glucuronic acid
(morphine, oxazepam), sulfates (chloramphenicol, phenol),
glutathione (paracetamol), etc.
In the process of conjugation involves many enzymes:
glyukuroniltransferazy, sulfotransferase, transatsilaza, methyl
transferase, glutathione-5-transferase, etc.
Conjugation may be the only way of transformation of substances
or she follows its predecessor metabolic transformation.

When metabolic transformation and conjugation agents pass more polar and more soluble
metabolites and conjugates. It is conducive to their further chemical transformations, if they are
needed, and promotes their excretion from the body. It is known that the kidneys are derived
hydrophilic compounds, whereas the lipophilic highly exposed to the renal tubular reabsorption of
(reabsorption)
As a result of metabolic transformation, and conjugation of drugs usually lose their biological
activity. Thus, this process is limited in time action substances. In the pathology of the liver,
accompanied by decreased activity of microsomal enzymes, the duration of action of a number of
substances increases. Known inhibitors and various enzymes such as microsomal (chloramphenicol,
phenylbutazone) and nemikrosomalnyh (anticholinesterase agents, MAO inhibitors, etc.). They
prolong the effects of drugs which are inactivated by these enzymes. However, a compound (e.g.,
phenobarbital) that increase (induce) the synthesis rate of microsomal enzymes.
In some cases, chemical reactions of drugs in the body may lead to increased activity of the
compound (imipramine <desipramine), increased toxicity (phenacetin <phenetidine), change mode
of action (one of the metabolites is iprazida antidepressant isoniazid having antitubercular activity),
as well as conversion of one other active compound (partially converted codeine to morphine).
Ways elimination of drugs from the body
 Drugs, their metabolites and conjugates are primarily excreted in the urine and bile.
In the kidney, low molecular weight compounds dissolved in the plasma (non-protein),
filtered through the membrane capillaries and glomerular capsule. In addition, the
significant role played by active secretion of substances in the proximal tubules with
transport systems. These are distinguished by organic acids and bases, penicillins,
salicylates, sulfonamides, quinine, histamine, thiazides, etc. Some lipophilic
compounds can migrate from the blood into the lumen of the tubules (proximal and
distal) by simple diffusion through the walls thereof.
Removing materials largely depends on the process of reabsorption (reuptake) in the
renal tubules. Drugs reabsorbed mainly by simple diffusion. This consists mainly of
non-polar lipophilic compounds penetrate well through biological membranes. The
polar compounds are poorly reabsorbed from the renal tubules. In this regard, for
removing weak acids and bases important in urine pH. Thus, in alkaline urine increased
excretion of acidic compounds (for example, salicylic acid, phenobarbital), when acidic
- increased excretion bases (imipramine, etc.). This is due to the fact that in these
conditions the compound ionized and virtually reabsorbed from the renal tubules.
 Furthermore, in some reabsorption endogenous substances (amino acids, glucose,
uric acid) participates actively transport.
A number of drugs (tetracyclines, penicillins, phenytoin, colchicine, etc.) and
especially the products of their transformation in a significant amount excreted in
the bile into the intestine, where partially excreted in the feces and can be reabsorbed and subsequently re-released into the intestines, etc. . (The so-called
enterohepatic circulation, or hepatic recirculation).
Gaseous and many volatile matter (for example, the means for inhalation anesthesia)
are displayed in the main light.
Some drugs are excreted salivary glands (iodide), sweat (protivoleproznoe means
ditofal) glands of the stomach (quinine, nicotine) and intestines (weak organic acids),
lacrimal glands (rifampicin).
It should also be borne in mind that in lactating mammary gland secretes many
substances that receives nursing mother (hypnotics, sedatives, ethyl alcohol,
nicotine, etc.). In this regard, care is required to appoint the mother of drugs, since
the milk they can get into the child's body and have an adverse effect on him.
Elimination (removal) of the substance of the body is provided by biotransformation
and excretion. To quantify elimination process uses a series of parameters:
elimination rate constant (K elim), «half life» (t1 / 2) and total clearance (CL T).
The elimination rate constant (K eljm) reflects the rate of material removal from the
body.
 To assess the clearance rate of substances from the body is used as the
parameter "half-life" (elimination half-life) - t1 / 2, which reflects the time
required for reducing the concentration of a substance in blood plasma
by 50%. This parameter is used for the selection of doses of substances
and intervals of administration to create steady-state concentration of
the drug. It is known that the removal of substances of more than 90% is
carried out for a time equal to four tl / 2, which is taken into account
when dispensing. It should be borne in mind that the t1 / 2 is determined
not only breeding material from the body, but also its biotransformation
and deposition.
Furthermore, to quantify the elimination rate substances used
parameter clearance (CL) from the English. clearance - cleaning,
reflecting the rate of plasma cleaning of the substance (expressed in
volume per unit time, if necessary with the body weight or surface: ml /
min ml / kg / min l/m2/ch etc.) . Allocate general (total), clearance (CL T),
and kidney (CL R) and hepatic (CL H) clearance. The total clearance is
associated with parameters such as volume of distribution (Vd), «half
life» (t 1/2) and the elimination rate constant (K elim).
 Resorptive effect depends on the route of administration of drugs and their
ability to cross biological barriers.
At the local and resorptive effect drugs have either a direct or reflex effect.
First implemented in place of direct contact of the substance with a cloth.
When the reflex action of matter affect exteroanterocone or interoceptors
and the effect is the change of state or the corresponding nerve centers, or
executive. Thus, the use of yellow cards in the pathology of respiratory refreflex improves their trophic (mustard essential oil stimulates exteroceptors
skin). The drug lobelia, injected intravenously, has a stimulating effect on
the carotid chemoreceptors glomerulus and stimulating the reflex center of
respiration, increases the volume and respiratory rate.
The main objective of the pharmacodynamics - find out where and how the
drugs are causing these or other effects. Thanks to the improvement of
instructional techniques, these issues are not only at the system and organ,
but also on the cellular, sub-cellular, molecular and submolecular levels.
 So, for neurotropic drugs applies the structure of the nervous
system, synaptic formation of which have the most by a high
sensitivity to these compounds. For substances that affect the
metabolism is determined by the localization of enzymes in
different tissues, cells and subcellular entities whose activity
changes is particularly important. In all cases, we are talking about
the biological substrates, "targets", which interact with the drug.
As the "target" for the drug are receptors, ion channels, enzymes,
transport systems and genes.
Receptors called active groups of the macromolecules of substrates
with which a substance. Receptors, providing the manifestation of
substances called specific.
There are the following 4 types of receptors.
 I. Receptors direct control over the function of ion channels. This type of
receptor directly associated with ion channels, include n-cholinergic
receptors, GABA receptors, glutamate receptors.
II. Receptors associated with effector through «G-proteins - the secondary
transmitter" or «G-protein-gated ion channels". These receptors are
available for many hormones and neurotransmitters (m-cholinergic
receptors, adrenergic receptors).
III. Receptors directly control the effector function of the enzyme. They are
directly related to tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins and adjusted.
According to this principle arranged insulin receptors several growth
factors.
IV. Receptors controlling transcription of DNA. In contrast to membrane
receptors type I-III is intracellular receptors (soluble cytosolic or nuclear
proteins). With these receptors interact with steroid and thyroid hormones.
Most fruitful study of receptor subtypes and associated effects. Among the
first studies of this type include work on the synthesis of many in-blockers
are widely used in various diseases of the cardiovascular system. Then came
the histamine H2-blockers receptor - effective for the treatment of gastric
ulcer and duodenal ulcer. Later it was synthesized in a variety of other drugs
that act on different subtypes of alpha-adrenergic receptors, dopamine,
opioid receptors, etc. These studies have played a major role in the creation
of new groups of selective drugs, which are widely used in medical practice.
 Pharmacological interaction due to the fact that one substance or alters
the pharmacokinetics (s) other components of the mixture
pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetic interaction type can be associated
with malabsorption, biotransformation, transport, deposition and
removal of the substances. Pharmacodynamic type of interaction is the
result of direct or indirect interaction of matter at the level of receptor
cells, enzymes, organ or physiological systems. In this case, the main
effect may vary quantitatively (amplified, attenuated) or qualitatively. In
addition, the possibility of chemical and physico-chemical interaction of
substances in their joint application.
Pharmacokinetic type of interaction can occur at the stage of absorption
of substances, which may vary for different reasons. Thus, in the
digestive tract may be binding substances absorbent material (activated
carbon, white clay) or anion-exchange resin (e.g. cholestyramine
hypolipidemic agent), the formation of inactive chelate or chelates (for
example, according to the principle tetracycline group of antibiotics
interact with the ions of iron, calcium, magnesium). All of these forms of
interaction prevents the absorption of drugs and thus reduce their
pharmacological effects. For some substances absorption from the
digestive tract is essential pH. So by changing the reaction of digestive
juices, can significantly affect the rate and completeness of absorption
of weakly acidic and weakly basic compounds
 General principles of treatment of acute poisoning by drugs
Acute poisoning by chemicals, including drugs, are quite common. Poisoning may be
accidental, intentional (suicide (from Lat. Suicidum - suicide (sui - myself, caedo - kill))
and associated features of the profession. Most common acute poisoning with ethyl
alcohol, hypnotics, psychotropic drugs, opioid and non-opioid analgesics,
organophosphate insecticides and other compounds.
For the treatment of poisoning by chemicals created special poison control centers
and offices. The main objective in the treatment of acute poisoning is to remove
substances from the body, causing the toxicity. In severely ill patients it must be
preceded by general therapeutic and resuscitative measures aimed at ensuring the
functioning of vital systems - respiration and blood circulation.
The principles of detoxification are as follows. First of all it is necessary to delay the
absorption of the substance on the routes of administration. If the substance is
partially or fully grown deep, should accelerate its excretion from the body, as well as
take advantage of antidotes for its neutralization and elimination of adverse effects.
a) delay absorption of the toxic substance in the blood
Dose calculation
 Td = maxd / 2; 3

 Td child = td adult* age of a child / 24

 Td> 60 age = td adult/ 2
The solutions dosed by spoons
 Example of a discharging of the solutions dosed by spoons

 To write out sodium вromidum (td-0,3) in solution table spoons for 4 days and to
prescribe on 1 table spoon 3 times a day.

 1.
Rp.: Natrii bromidi 3,6 (0,3*12)

Aquae destillatae 180 ml (15*12)

M.f. solutio

D.S. By 1 table spoon 3 times a day

 2.

Rp.: Sol. Natrii bromidi ex 3,6-180 ml

D.S. By1 table spoon 3 times a day

Cont.
 3.

Rp.: Sol. Natrii bromidi 2 %-180 ml

D.S. By1 table spoon 3 times a day

 The PROBLEM to Define how many вromidum sodium
contains in 1 table spoon of this solution?

100 - 2

15 – x
x = 15*2/100=0,3
Mixture
 Example of a discharging of mixture

 To write out the mixture consisting of caffeine-sodium benzoatum
(Td 0,1) and amidopyrinum (Td 0,25). To prescribe table spoons.
 Calculation - 0,1*12 = 1,2 caffeine-sodium benzoatum

0,25*12=3,0 Amidopyrinum

15*12=180 water ml

Rp.: Coffeini natrio-benzoatis 1,2

Amydopyrini 3,0

Aquae destillatae ad 180 ml

M.D.S. By 1 table spoon 3 times a day
Korrigens
 EXAMPLE to write out chlorali hydras solution (Td 1,0) on 4
receptions by table spoons with slime addition.
 Calculation: 1*4 = 4,0

15*4 = 60
 Mucilages - 60/3 = 20


Rp.: Chlorali hydrati 4,0

Mucilaginis Amyli 20 ml

Aquae destillatae ad 60 ml

M.D.S. By1 table spoon for the night
Suspensions (cloud)
 EXAMPLE to write out 10 ml of the aqueous slurry keeping 0,5 % of
Hydrocortisoni acetas. To prescribe on 2 drops in an eye 4 times a day.


Rp.: Suspensionis Hydrocortisoni acetatis 0,5 %-10 ml

D.S. By 2 drops in an eye 4 times a day.

Before the use to shake

 EXAMPLE to write out 100 ml of suspension of Griseofulvinum and to
prescribe on 1 dessert spoon 3 times a day.


Rp.: Susp. Griseofulvini 100 ml

D.S. By 1 dessert spoon 3 times a day, shake before the use
MIXTURE
Solutions, in chemistry, homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of two or
more substances. The substance present in largest quantity usually is
called the solvent, and the substance present in smallest quantity is
called the solute. Although a solvent can be a gas, liquid, or solid, the
most common solvent is liquid water. A solution with water as the
solvent is called an aqueous solution. The solute can be a gas, liquid, or
solid. Carbonated water is an example of a gas solute (carbon dioxide)
dissolved in a liquid solvent (water).
Sugar water is an example of a solid solute (sugar) dissolved
in a liquid solvent (water). Many metals are soluble in one
another, forming solid solutions known as alloys. Mixtures of
gases, such as the atmosphere, are sometimes referred to as
solutions as well. Solutions are distinct from colloids (see
Colloid) and suspensions in that the particles of the solute are
of molecular size and are evenly dispersed among the
molecules of the solvent. Solutions appear homogeneous
under the microscope, and the solute cannot be separated by
filtration. Salts, acids, and bases ionize when they are
dissolved in water (see Acids and Bases; Ionization).
PRESCRIPTION
 Rp. :
Coffeini natrio-benzoatis 1,2
Amidopyrini 3,0
Aquae destillatae ad 180 ml
M.D.S. drinking from 1 spoon
 Rp.:
Infusi herbae Adonidis vernalis ex 6,0-180ml
Natrii bromidi 3,6
Codeini phosphatis 0,12
M.D.S. drinking from 1 spoon