GEOG 101: Day 11
Finishing up Biodiversity; Forestry
Housekeeping Items
 For your assignments, try to follow the APA parenthetical style
– see https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ and
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/.
 From Purdue OWL:
 “If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to
include the author, year of publication, and the page number
for the reference (preceded by ‘p.’). Introduce the quotation
with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name
followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
 Today, our topic is forestry and I think I’ll have to leave it to
you to read about the environmental and social impacts of
mining. Canadian mining companies have a bad track record,
both environmentally and in terms of how they treat
communities, around the world, and we have a couple of films
about that in the VIU Library – see Defensora, in particular.
Housekeeping Items
 We will finish up some of the material on
biodiversity and conservation, and then move on
to forestry. On Thursday, we will have a special
guest talking about Garry Oak ecosystems and
restoration projects on Vancouver Island.
Canadian Wildlife
Federation does a lot
of habitat and wildlife
protection work – see
http://cwffcf.org/en/discoverwildlife/resources/ma
gazines/canadianwildlife/ma2012/back
-where-theybelong.html about
elk.
Facebook page for the Campus Food Movement:
https://www.facebook.com/groups/218138681603500/.
Housekeeping Items
 Mid-term assignments are due on Thursday, if at all
possible.
 Wikipedia claims that 10-15% of the Earth’s land
surface is in some form of park or protected area, but
that is likely high and often meaningless. Only 1.17% of
the ocean is under some form of protection.
 I looked up debt-for-nature swaps. According to
Wikipedia, “[s]ince the first swap occurred between
Conservation International and Bolivia in 1987, many
national governments and conservation organizations
have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps.” As of 2010,
these totalled over $1 billion worldwide.
 The table on p. 4 is hard to read, but it indicates some
of the countries that have been involved.
Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010
(Millions US$)[4] – partial list (source: Wikipedia)
Non-US Bilateral
Three-party Swap
US Bilateral Swap
Country
and Multilateral
Total
Funding
Funding
Swap Funding
Argentina
$3.1
$3.1
B
Bangladesh
$8.5
$8.5
Belize
$9.0
$9.0
Bolivia
$3.1
$9.6
$21.8
$34.5
Botswana
$8.3
$8.3
Brazil
$2.2
$2.2
Bulgaria
$16.2
$16.2
Cameroon
$25.0
$25.0
Chile
$18.7
$18.7
Colombia
$12.0
$51.6
$63.6
Costa Rica
$42.9
$43.3
$26.0
$112.2
Dominican
$0.6
$0.6
Republic
Ecuador
$7.4
$10.8
$18.2
Egypt
$29.6
$29.6
El Salvador
$6.0
$55.2
$61.2
Ghana
$1.1
$1.1
Guatemala
$1.4
$24.4
$25.8
Guinea
$0.4
$0.4
Bissau
Honduras
$21.4
$21.4
Indonesia
$30.0
$30.0
Jamaica
$0.4
$37.5
$37.9
Jordan
$45.5
$45.5
Housekeeping Items
 Costa Rica has amongst the highest proportions of their
land base (over 25%) in protected park and reserves,
but they’re lacking the resources to manage them.
 While there is an active conservation movement, it
faces threats:
 “Conservationist murders threaten Costa Rica's
eco-friendly reputation
 The brutal murder of Jairo Mora, who was trying to
protect endangered turtle eggs, was the latest in a
string of crimes against environmentalists in the country.
Many worry activists will stay away if poachers continue
to go unpunished
 Seven alleged poachers were accused of the murder of
Jairo Mora but all were acquitted on 26 January.”
Resources on Mining
 Resources on mining in and based from Canada:
 Britannia Beach mine tailings:
(http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/background.html)
 Diamond mining in the north – the Canadian Arctic
Resources Committee:
http://www.carc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=
article&id=92:diamonds-and-sustainabledevelopment&catid=41:mining-andsustainability&Itemid=153 and
http://geology.com/articles/canada-diamond-mines/
 Canadian companies in Latin America. See the film in the
Library, Defensora: HD 9539 N52 G93 2013
10-7
Topics This Week – Forestry and
Mining: Key Industries in B.C.
How many people have family members who or
have been involved in these industries, or who have
themselves been involved?
Why should we care about them in a course on
environmental geography?
What kinds of potential ecological impacts do they
have?
How are they linked into globalization?
Where are the primary markets for wood products
and minerals, including fossil fuels?
Upon completing this chapter, you will be
able to
Describe the basic functional processes of trees
and their role in biogeochemical cycling
Summarize the principal types of forest biomes,
especially those indigenous to Canada
Describe the ecological roles and economic
contributions of forests
Trace the history and scale of forest loss and
identify the current drivers of deforestation
Outline the major methods of harvesting timber
Explain the fundamentals of forest management,
and identify forest management agencies in
Canada and internationally
10-9
Central Case:
Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound
 1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian
history (anyone you know involved?)
 12,000 Protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees
in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia
(anyone you know involved?), and over 800 were arrested
 Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the
trees are at least 150 years old
 Jobs depended on the timber industry
 Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for
forestry in the area
 Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain
a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest
ecosystem
10-10
The Forest and the Trees
See the following for an estimate for how many trees there are in
the world: http://www.ibtimes.com/how-many-trees-are-thereworld-scientists-have-new-estimate-its-way-more-they-thought2078774
10-12
The Forest and the Trees
 Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface (and used
to cover much more, though a few areas are reverting back)
 Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality and
quantity, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles
10-13
Trees have several basic requirements
For photosynthesis to occur
 An amenable temperature
(appropriate to the species)
 Air (with CO2)
 Light
 Proper soil (with certain
nutrients)
 Water (some tree species
need more than others)
10-14
Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d)
Macronutrients – required in large amounts
Micronutrients – required in small amounts
Transpiration – water loss from leaf surface,
cools the plant as well as assisting in the
movement of nutrients
Water drawn up through xylem by adhesion
and cohesion (water being sucked out of the
leaf pores by wind, thus creating a vacuum that
enables more water to flow up the trunk
channels)
Useful to plant trees in close proximity to crops
to make water more accessible to crops
10-15
There are three major groups of forest
biomes (ecosystem type that occurs around the globe)
Boreal forest
High-latitude forest
Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons
Temperate forest
Mid-latitude forest (eastern forests or west-coast
rainforests)
Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing
season)
Tropical forest
Equatorial-latitude forest
Wet, tropical climate
10-16
Forests grade into open wooded lands
Drylands:
-
-
-
Shrublands = wooded
areas covered by shrubs
and occasional taller trees
(e.g. tundra)
Savannah = open area
dominated by grasses
with widely scattered trees
Grasslands = lands
dominated by grasses and
non-woody vegetation
10-18
Canada is a steward for much of the
world’s forest
Canada has the highest amount of forested
land per capita in the world
More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest
remains more or less intact
10-19
Canada’s forests are varied
 402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land
is 25% of the world’s natural forest. For a fuller
description, see
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forestregions.
 Forests of the north:
- Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of
Canada
- In every province and territory except New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island
 Forests of the west:
- Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia
 Forests of the east:
- Forest regions: Deciduous (Carolinian), Great-LakesSt. Lawrence (mixed deciduous & evergreen), Acadian
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests).10-20
Forests are ecologically valuable
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
Some animals adapted for living in canopy,
others specialize on the sub-canopies
Shrubs and groundcover plants of the
understory are home to still more organisms
Fallen leaves and branches, called litter, house
still others
Forest edge can be quite different from habitat
in the forest core.
10-21
Different storeys (layers) in the forest
10-22
Trees provide ecosystem services
of value to people
A forest provides many ecosystem
services
Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates
climate
 Regions that have lost their forest cover –
where are they, and what are they subject
to?
-
10-23
Harvesting Forest Products
10-24
Forest products are economically valued
 Benefits: fuel, shelter,
transportation (ships),
paper
 Helped society achieve a
high standard of living
 Softwood = timber
harvested from coniferous
trees
 Hardwood = timber
harvested from deciduous
trees
 NTFPs = non-timber forest
products such as medicinal,
herbal, decorative and
edible products (e.g. edible
plants, traditional First
Nations plants for healing
and eating, mushrooms,
salal for arrangements,
etc.)
10-25
Timber is harvested by several methods
Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut,
leaving only stumps
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impacts on forest ecosystems
Mimics natural disturbances such as fires
Enhances soil erosion and
run-off
10-26
Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)
10-27
Timber is harvested by several methods
(cont’d)
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are
cut
All methods disturb habitat, but some more than
others
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding,
landslides
10-28
Plantation forestry has grown in North America
 Reforestation = planting of trees after logging
 Afforestation = planting of trees where forested
cover has not existed for some time (e.g. Oak
Ridges Moraine on Ontario in ‘30s ‘40s, and ’50s)
 Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age
 Maximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly
after they have gone through their fastest stage
of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at
intermediate ages
10-29
Land Conversion and Deforestation
10-30
Land Conversion and Deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests
 People have cleared forests for millennia
 Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant
human environmental impacts
 Alters landscapes and ecosystems (and hence habitat)
10-31
The growth of Canada and the U.S. were
fueled by land clearing and logging
Deforestation propelled growth throughout North
America
Cleared for farming
Then wood used to provide raw materials for
industry
Principal cause of deforestation in Canada was
agriculture; now it’s
logging and mining.
10-32
Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of
forests and grasslands
Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface
than forest
Principal driver of land conversion today –
examples?
Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared
and crops planted
 Sustains only one or two seasons of planting
 Soil depleted quickly
 7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings
to support crops or forests
 is it sustainable? Seems to be a minor culprit
10-33
Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface
Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have
traditionally been raised by grazing on open
rangelands
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and
at low intensity
Poorly managed grazing impacts savannah and
grassland ecosystems
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to
preserve ranchland against development and
urban sprawl
However, some tropical rainforest is being
converted to rangeland or single-crop plantations
10-34
Bad practices and other pressures have
led to deforestation
Deforestation has altered the landscapes and
ecosystems of much or our planet
Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t
always happened
Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in
dryland regions
Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to
atmosphere because forests are carbon sinks
Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical
rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and to some
degree Asia, affecting species such as orangutans
10-35
Oil Sands Before and After…
Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many
developing nations
• Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in
many developing countries
• Advanced technology has allowed the
exploitation of resources faster than in the
past (often by foreign multinationals)
• Often these countries impose few or no
restrictions on logging
• Often timber is extracted by foreign
corporations
10-37
weighing
the issues
Logging here or there?
Imagine you are an environmental activist
protesting a logging operation that is cutting
old-growth trees near your hometown. If the
protest is successful, the company will move to
a developing country and cut its primary forest
instead.
 Would you still protest the logging in your
hometown?
 Would you pursue any other approaches?
10-38
Forest Management Principles
10-39
Forest Management Principles
Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of
managing forests by balancing forests as
ecosystems and as sources of wood products
Harvesting = the removal of material from the
resource
Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the
capability of the resource to replenish or
regenerate itself (‘sustained yield’ – this is the
theory, not necessarily the practice)
10-40
Public forests in Canada are managed
for many purposes
 Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on
federal Crown lands
 Provincial crown land used for timber and nontimber forest products (mainly timber)
 Multiple use = policy where forests are to be
managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral
extraction, and various other uses
 wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional
taller trees (e.g. tundra)
10-41
Today some managers try to practice ecosystembased management, but still much disagreement
about what it is
Ecosystem-based management = managing
the harvesting of resources to minimize impact
on the ecosystems and ecological processes
Carefully managing ecologically important
areas
Protecting some forested areas
It is challenging for managers to determine how
to implement this type of management
Ecosystems are complex, and our
understanding of how they operate is limited
10-42
Adaptive management evolves and improves
 Adaptive management = systematically testing
different management approaches and aiming to
improve methods based on experimentation
 Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
 A fusion of science and management
 Time-consuming and complicated
 A guiding principle for forest management in Canada
 West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments
 Donna Creek Biodiversity Project
 Grizzly Bear Habitat Project
10-43
Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests
 Many ecosystems
depend on fire
 Ecosystems dependent of
fire are adversely affected
by its suppression
 Ground fires = the litter
layer itself burns, as
opposed to crown fires
 Crown fires = the upper
tree canopy is ignited
10-44
Fire policy has stirred controversy
 For over 100 years, all
forest fires were
suppressed
 But many ecosystems
depend on fires
 Fire suppression allows
woody accumulation,
which produces kindling
for future fires
 Housing development near
forests and climate change
will increase fire risk
10-45
Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
 Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests
under carefully controlled conditions
 Effective
 May get out of control
 Impeded by public
misunderstanding and
political interference
 Should development
allowed in fire-prone
areas?
10-46
Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
 Removal of dead trees
following a natural disturbance
 Seems logical, but is really
destructive
 Snags (standing dead trees)
provide nesting cavities for
countless animals
 Removing timber from recently
burned areas increases erosion
and soil damage
 Promotes future fires
10-47
Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
 Sustainable forestry certification = only
products produced sustainably can be certified
 International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) have different standards
 Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably
produced timber
 Companies such as Home Depot sell
sustainable wood as a result of
environmental campaigns
 Encourages better logging practices
10-48
Conclusion
 Forests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial
ecosystem services that have economic value as
well
 Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid
overexploitation and overharvesting
 There are federal and regional agencies to oversee
and manage publicly held land and natural
resources
 Resource management policies consider sustained
yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation,
wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity
 Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas
and other reserves
10-49