Chapter 9
Language Problems in the Context of Induction:
Pseudoprecision: these are claims that appear to be
precise because of the use of numbers, but cannot be
precise because of the impossibility of obtaining
knowledge to the level of exactness described. Typically
there is a problem with an operational definition when
this occurs.
Examples of pseudoprecision are expiration dates on food,
calorie content on foods and many studies relating to
increases in usage and the like. (see page 270-2)
Chapter 9
Questionable Operational Definitions
Sometimes an operational definition used in science or the
like is used in a manner that is illicit. So when a term or
phrase that is vague or imprecise is used (like:
unfocused hyperactivity) and a precise measurement is
applied (like 40% reduction), then we have an instance
of a term that has been operationalized.
The claim or number is misleading because there is no
precision, but only pseudoprecision (272).
Chapter 9
Common Errors in Inductive Reasoning
The Biased Sample: this occurs with cases of over- or
under- emphasized characteristics being sampled. Or it
could occur because the sample isn’t random or the
question in a poll is presented in such a way to
guarantee the outcome desired by the poll taker.
Description of Biased Sample
This fallacy is committed when a person
draws a conclusion about a population
based on a sample that is biased or
prejudiced in some manner. It has the
following form:
• Sample S, which is biased, is taken from
population P.
• Conclusion C is drawn about Population P
based on S.
A sample is biased or loaded when the method used to
take the sample is likely to result in a sample that does
not adequately represent the population from which it is
drawn.
For Example:
The United Pacifists of America decide to run a poll to
determine what Americans think about guns and gun
control. Jane is assigned the task of setting up the study.
To save mailing costs, she includes the survey form in the
group's newsletter mailing. She is very pleased to find out
that 95% of those surveyed favor gun control laws and
she tells her friends that the vast majority of Americans
favor gun control laws.
Example #2:
Pastor Pete: People are turning to God
everywhere! 9 out of 10 people I interviewed said that
they had a personal relationship with Jesus Christ.
Fred: Where did you find these people you
interviewed?
Pastor Pete: In my church.
Explanation: Pastor Pete has drawn a conclusion
about religious beliefs from people “everywhere”
based on people he has interviewed in his
church. That’s like concluding that the world likes to
dance naked in front of strangers after interviewing a
group of strippers.
Chapter 9
Hasty inductive generalizations: Inductive
generalization in which the evidence in the
premises is too slight to support the
conclusion, usually because the sample
is so small that it is extremely unlikely to
be representative. The G condition of
argument cogency is not satisfied in such
a case.
Examples of Hasty Generalization
Smith, who is from England, decides to attend graduate
school at Ohio State University. He has never been to
the US before. The day after he arrives, he is walking
back from an orientation session and sees two white
(albino) squirrels chasing each other around a tree. In
his next letter home, he tells his family that American
squirrels are white.
Sam is riding her bike in her home town in Maine,
minding her own business. A station wagon comes up
behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and
then tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the
driver yells "get on the sidewalk where you belong!" Sam
sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all
Ohio drivers are jerks.
Of course your columnist Michele Slatalla was joking
when she wrote about needing to talk with her 58-yearold mother about going into a nursing home. While I
admire Slatalla's concern for her parents, and agree that
as one approaches 60 it is wise to make some long-term
plans, I hardly think that 58 is the right age at which to
talk about a retirement home unless there are some
serious health concerns. In this era, when people are
living to a healthy and ripe old age, Slatalla is jumping the
gun. My 85-year-old mother power-walks two miles each
day, drives her car (safely), climbs stairs, does
crosswords, reads the daily paper and could probably
beat Slatalla at almost anything.
Source: Nancy Edwards, "Letters to the Editor", Time,
6/26/00.
Chapter 9
Anecdotal arguments describe premises from one
person’s experiences and try to base a conclusion. You
use a personal experience or an isolated example
instead of a cogent argument or compelling evidence.
Typically the problem with these anecdotal arguments is
that they don’t satisfy the G condition from our ARG
conditions. There are no good grounds to accept a
robust conclusion.
Anecdotal arguments are a form of hasty generalization
and are thus fallacies.
Examples of Anecdotal Evidence
Jason said that that was all cool and everything,
but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a
day and lived until 97 - so don't believe
everything you read about meta analyses of
methodologically sound studies showing proven
causal relationships.
"Criminals are never given the punishment they
deserve. Just look at that guy who tried to kill
that little girl. After the plea bargaining, he
practically got off scot free!"
Chapter 9
The Fallacy of Composition and Division
These two fallacies deal with inferences that occur between
the part and the whole or members of a group and the
group itself.
Fallacy of Composition: a conclusion about a whole or
group is reached based on premises about its parts or
members.
Fallacy of Division: a conclusion about a part or member is
reached based on premises about the whole or group.
Chapter 9
Examples of the fallacies of composition and division.
Composition: Each apartment is small. So the whole
apartment building is small.
We can see that the building could be quite large.
Division: The Florida Marlins baseball team is 16 years
old. So, each Florida Marlins baseball player is 16 years
old.
We know that the professional baseball players are not all
16 years old. These are mistakes in reasoning.
Examples of Composition
1. A main battle tank uses more fuel than a car. Therefore, the main battle
tanks use up more of the available fuel in the world than do all the cars.
2. A tiger eats more food than a human being. Therefore, tigers, as a group,
eat more food than do all the humans on the earth.
3. Atoms are colorless. Cats are made of atoms, so cats are colorless.
4. "Every player on the team is a superstar and a great player, so the team
is a great team." This is fallacious since the superstars might not be able
to play together very well and hence they could be a lousy team.
5. "Each part of the show, from the special effects to the acting is a
masterpiece. So, the whole show is a masterpiece." This is fallacious
since a show could have great acting, great special effects and such, yet
still fail to "come together" to make a masterpiece.
6. "Come on, you like beef, potatoes, and green beens, so you will like this
beef, potato, and green been casserole." This is fallacious for the same
reason that the following is fallacious: "You like eggs, icecream, pizza,
cake, fish, jello, chicken, taco sauce, soda, oranges, milk, egg rolls, and
yogurt so you must like this yummy dish made out of all of them."
7. Sodium and Chloride are both dangerous to humans. Therefore any
combination of sodium and chloride will be dangerous to humans.
Examples of Division
1. "The ball is blue, therefore the atoms that make it up are also blue."
2. "A living cell is organic material, so the chemicals making up the cell must
also be organic material."
3. "Bill lives in a large building, so his apartment must be large."
4. "Sodium chloride (table salt) may be safely eaten. Therefore its constituent
elements, sodium and chloride, may be safely eaten."
5. "Americans use much more electricity than Africans do. So Bill, who lives in
primitive cabin in Maine, uses more electricity than Nelson, who lives in a
modern house in South Africa. "
6. "Men receive more higher education than women. Therefore Dr. Jane Smart
has less higher education than Mr. Bill Buffoon. "
7. "Minorities get paid less than 'whites' in America. Therefore, the black CEO of
a multi-billion dollar company gets paid less than the white janitor who cleans
his office."