The role of marine protected areas for
biodiversity conservation and for science
Keith Hiscock
Marine Biological Association, UK
khis@mba.ac.uk
39th Congress of the Italian Society of Marine Biologists
Cesenatico. 9-13 June 2008
Presentation available from: www.ukmpas.org/presentations.html
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Marine Protected Areas in
the UK are almost all within
Special Areas of
Conservation (EU Directive)
There only three Marine
Nature Reserves
established under UK law.
Strangford Lough
Skomer
Map from the WWF-UK Marine
Biodiversity Hotspots report (see:
www.wwf.org.uk/marineact) and slightly
out-of-date.
Lundy
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The UK Context
www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm73/7351/7351.pdf
The draft Marine Bill includes provisions
for ‘Marine Conservation Zones’
Image: Adrian Pingstone
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The presentation
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• Defining a ‘Marine Protected Area’
• Why MPAs and especially highly protected marine nature
reserves are needed.
• The identification of ‘Nationally Important Marine Features’ –
species and habitats – to inform selection of areas.
• Case study from the UK’s only Highly Protected Marine
Nature Reserve at Lundy.
• The UK Marine Protected Areas Centre (www.ukmpas.org).
• Conclusions
Defining a ‘Marine Protected Area’ (MPA)
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“Marine Protected Area” (MPA) is a term used across the globe to describe:
"any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and
associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been
reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed
environment" (IUCN, 1988 / Kelleher and Kenchington, 1992¹).
In the UK:
MPAs are established primarily for the conservation of marine biodiversity
and to protect species and habitats of international or national importance.
The main types of MPA in the UK are Special Areas of Conservation and
Marine Nature Reserves, which are protected by legal measures, and
voluntary MPAs such as Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas and
Voluntary Marine Nature Reserves.
The draft Marine Bill sets out measures that will enable the establishment
of Marine Conservation Zones in England and Wales.
¹ Kelleher, G.G., and R.A. Kenchington. 1992. Guidelines for Establishing Marine Protected Areas. A Marine Conservation and
Development Report. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Adapted from text in www.ukmpas.org
Why MPAs and especially highly
protected marine nature reserves are
needed.
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1. For the protection of the ‘ecosystem goods and services’ that
biodiversity provides¹,².
2. As a way of increasing fish stocks by providing refugia from
where export of larvae and adults will occur (addressed in 5.).
3. For the conservation of biodiversity, including protection
of rare, scarce and threatened species and habitats.
4. To maintain the value of diverse communities in
providing resistance and resilience to change in marine
communities.
5. For scientific study in areas that are as close as possible
to natural (and therefore provide reference points).
¹ Beaumont, N.J. et al. 2007, Identification, definition and quantification of goods and services provided by marine biodiversity:
implications for the ecosystem approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54, 253-265.
² Beaumont, N.J. et al. 2008. Economic valuation for the conservation of marine biodiversity. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56, 386-396.
For a summary of
benefits of marine
reserves:
Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans. 2007. The Science of Marine
Reserves (2nd Edition, International Version). www.piscoweb.org/outreach/pubs/reserves
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MPAs are needed for the conservation
of biodiversity, including protection of rare,
scarce and threatened species
For instance (from the UK):
Sunset coral, Leptopsammia
pruvoti. Nationally rare in the
UK. Larva short-lived, settles
very near parent.
Erect sponge species. Several
are very slow-growing & longlived. For instance Axinella
dissimilis growth <1mm a year;
species in image are not found
colonising new surfaces.
Fan mussel, Atrina fragilis.
Nationally rare in the UK.
Populations devastated by mobile
fishing gear.
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MPAs are needed for the conservation
of biodiversity, including protection of rare,
scarce and threatened habitats
For instance (from the UK):
Maerl, Phymatolithon
calcareum, beds.
Threatened by fish farms,
extraction for soil
conditioners, scallop
dredging. Long-lived &
slow-growing.
Reefs of the tube worm
Serpula vermicularis.
Known from one location in
the UK. Threatened by
organic pollution and
mobile fishing gear.
Deep sheltered mud.
Characteristic of sealochs.
Associated communities
threatened by dredging for
scampi (Nephrops
norvegicus).
Defining ‘Nationally Important Marine
Features’
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Summary of criteria¹ for species (habitats criteria similar):
1. Proportional Importance
A high proportion of the populations of a species occurs within the UK.
2. Rarity
Marine species that are sessile or of restricted mobility are considered nationally rare if distribution is restricted
to eight or less 10km squares (0.5%) within the 3 mile territorial seas limit of UK waters.
3. Decline
An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected significant decline (exceeding expected or known natural
fluctuations) in numbers, extent or quality of a marine species in the UK (quality refers to life history
parameters). Decline should be at least 25% in the past 25 years where figures are available.
4. Threat of decline
It is estimated, inferred or suspected that a species will suffer a significant decline in the foreseeable future as
a result of human activity. (Factors included for Biodiversity Action Plans: 1. It is predicted that the species will
decline by 50% in a current 25 year period, or in the next 25 years; 2. The species is believed to be longlived (>25 years) with a low recovery potential and if action is not taken to reverse current trends then the
species is likely to become extinct in the next 100 years.)
¹ Connor et al. 2002. Rationale and criteria for the identification of nationally important
marine nature conservation features and areas in the UK. Version 02.11. (Available from:
http://www.jncc.gov.uk/PDF/sg341.pdf)
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Finding out more
about recent mpa
developments in
the UK:
www.defra.gov.uk/marine
www.jncc.gov.uk/marine
www.ukmpas.org
www.defra.gov.uk/marine/biodiversity/marine-bill/guidance.htm
MPAs are needed to maintain the value
of diverse communities in providing
resistance and resilience to change in
marine communities.
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The main threats are:
• Physical disturbance and contaminants that reduce species
diversity in communities.
• Introduction of non-native species that become dominant.
• Climate change impacts on dominant or key functional /
structural species.
Evidence in the scientific literature is weak, but see, for
instance, Bevilacqua et al. 2006¹.
¹ Bevilacqua, S. et al. 2006. Mitigating human disturbance: can protection influence trajectories
of recovery in benthic assemblages? Journal of Ecology, 75, 908-920.
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MPAs are needed to restore damaged
ecosystems (where restoration is possible)
First, wreck your MPA – the case of Strangford Lough SAC
mussel beds
Restoration
zones
(October
2007) – but
will they
work?
MPAs are needed for studies of species
biology and ecosystem functioning in
close-as-possible-to-natural situations.
• The case for protection is based on only a few experimental
studies, and a lot of ‘best available experience’, ‘assumptions’
or ‘speculation’.
• Policy advisors require evidence of adverse effects before
supporting restrictions on fishing, recreation etc.
• MPAs should therefore be used to undertake experimental
and observational studies (monitoring) to supply data.
[Many studies are needed to increase our relevant knowledge
for conservation science, especially using molecular genetics,
but those studies do not necessarily need MPAs.]
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Manipulative studies that impact an area
– best done outside MPAs or in multipleuse MPAs
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Arenas, F., Sanchez, I., Hawkins, S.J., and Jenkins, S.R. 2006. The invasibility of marine algal
assemblages: role of functional diversity and identity. Ecology 87(11): 2851-2861.
MPAs provide facilities for the public to
enjoy a healthy marine environment and
the species and habitats there.
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But, where education may affect naturalness, in multi-use MPAs.
Ultimately, public enjoyment should be expressed as support for
strict regulation of existing and establishment of further mpas.
Highly Protected Marine Nature Reserves
(HPMNRs) are needed so that there are
areas as close-as-possible-to-natural for
scientific study
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With HPMNRs, studies can be undertaken to:
• Separate changes that are occurring as a result of human
activities (outside HPMNRs) from natural fluctuations (inside
HPMNRs). I.e. using HPMNRs as reference locations.
• Compare recovery rates and resilience under close-aspossible-to-natural condition (inside HPMNRs) from perturbated
situations (outside HPMNRs).
• Investigate the consequences of removing exploitation on
species interactions and community development / change /
recovery.
Photographic monitoring studies – benign
activity suitable for HPMNRs
Fixed quadrat monitoring in the Skomer Marine Nature Reserve (see:
www.wwmc.org.uk/smnr_allies.html
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Highly Protected Marine Nature Reserves
(HPMNRs) are also beneficial as:
• Areas where otherwise exploited species can thrive, possibly
migrating as adults to enhance exploited stocks or producing
larvae that enhance stocks.
• Areas for benign recreational activities where fish and
shellfish life as well as sessile benthic species are prolific
compared to exploited areas.
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Making the ‘best’ choices for the most
effective and beneficial MPA series
(‘design criteria’)¹
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• Representativity
• Replication
• Viability
• Adequacy
• Maximum connectivity
• Protection
• Use best available evidence
¹ Based OSPAR and IUCN criteria in draft guidance on the proposed approach to the selection and designation
of Marine Conservation Zones under Part 4 of the draft Marine Bill in the UK. Available from:
www.defra.gov.uk/marine/biodiversity/marine-bill/guidance.htm
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Getting the best ‘value for money’ in MPAs
- identifying marine biodiversity hotspots
Marine biodiversity hotspots are areas of high species and
habitat richness that include representative, rare and
threatened features
Measures trialled in the WWF-UK and MBA study:
• Species richness
• Biotope richness
• Candidate NIMF species richness
• Candidate NIMF biotope richness
• Average taxonomic distinctness
• Average biotope distinctness
See: Hiscock, K. & Breckels, M. 2007. Marine Biodiversity Hotspots: identification and protection. Godalming:
WWF UK. Available from: www.wwf.org.uk/marineact.
We had data for 120 well-surveyed areas and analysed it to
identify biodiversity hotspots – examples here: read the report
for context
1.
2.
1. Species Richness and 2. Average taxonomic distinctness for 6 major phyla.
Red dots represent ‘hot’ areas or high diversity, green dots represent areas of
expected diversity and blue dots show areas with lower than expected diversity.
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Case study (recovery following
exploitation) from the UK’s only NoTake Marine Reserve at Lundy
Lundy
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General use zone – all
activities allowed except
spearfishing
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‘Refuge zone’ (but fishing with
static gear and angling
permitted)
No-Take zone – no extraction
but boating, access to the
shore and recreational diving
permitted
‘Recreational Zone’
(restrictions as for the Refuge
Zone but used for moorings
and anchoring)
The No-Take zone is 4.3 km²
Experimental potting for lobsters has shown
that No-Take areas can be a success
(Lundy No-Take monitoring results are currently being
prepared for publication)
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All sizes
Mean number per string
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12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Lundy
NTZ
Lundy
Con 1
Lundy
Con 2
North
Devon
Ref
South
Wales
Ref
There are many other examples of fish stocks increasing in
HPMNRs, improving stocks and changing benthic communities.
For instance in Italy ¹ and New Zealand ².
¹ Guidetti, P. 2007. Potential of marine reserves to cause community-wide changes beyond their
boundaries. Conservation Biology, 21, 540-545.
² Babcock, R.C. et al. 1999. Changes in community structure in temperate marine
reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 189, 125-134.
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A next question to address is “what
impact, if any, has the increased lobster
population had on other benthic species?”
The numbers of Necora puber being caught in traps has fallen
since lobster numbers have risen – is there a link?
Will scallop numbers fall if the lobsters
eat the scallops?
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Identifying changes resulting
from protection is essential to
predict consequences in new
MPAs. And, the time scale may
be long¹.
¹ Shears, N.T. & Babcock, R. C. 2003. Continuing
tropic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take
marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology
Progress Series, 246, 1-16.
The value of strict protection for attached 29
invertebrates will take decades to establish
– and will the monitoring be done?
Langlois, T.J. and Ballantine W.J. 2005. Marine ecological research in New Zealand: developing
predictive models using no-take marine reserves. Conservation Biology 19:1763-1770.
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www.ukmpas.org
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Conclusions
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• Evidence from MPAs in temperate areas indicates benefits of
protection including enhancement of species richness and
biomass and enhancement of commercial fish stocks outside.
• MPAs are needed for research on the biology of species,
dynamics of habitats and benefits of protection.
• HPMNRs should be places where non-destructive research is
carried out to compare locations that are ‘close-as-possible-tonatural’ with exploited areas.
• The public will benefit from having information and
educational facilities in multi-use MPAs, and learn to value
nature and to support conservation
• The public will benefit from having areas that are fully protected
and that they are allowed access to for benign activities.
Presentation available from www.ukmpas.org/presentations.html
Thank you
Returning to Plymouth from a dive in a proposed Marine Conservation Zone