Q #01… Describe the cardiovascular system. Begin by first identifying significant
anatomical parts and explaining which part play a part in the overall system. Then,
name important pathology that afflicts those particular anatomical parts just name. Also,
choose which laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures would be used in compliance
with that specific pathology.
Answer:
The cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system, is an organ system
that encompasses the heart and blood vessels of the body. The cardiovascular system
carries blood, oxygen, and nutrients to organs and tissues of the body, and carries
waste and carbon dioxide from these tissues for removal from the body.
Or
Cardiovascular system includes the organs and tissues involved in circulating blood and
lymph through the body.
Cardiovascular system means the system of heart and blood vessels of human body.
The term “cardiovascular” is a combination of two word; “Cardio” and “vascular”. The
term “cardio” is derived from “cardiac” meaning Heart and the term “vascular” means
blood vessels. So the name itself indicates that a cardiovascular system is the system
of heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular system is also known as “Circulatory
System”.
Components of Cardiovascular System:
Cardiovascular system is made up of three major components
 Heart
 Blood vessels
 Blood.
HEART: Heart is a hollow muscular organ made of strong cardiac muscles.
Heart can push the blood through the circulatory system with great force. In fact
push of the heart is the major force that causes circulation of blood throughout
human body. Heart is made up of three layers; Pericardium, Myocardium and
Endocardium.
The important anatomical parts of heart along with their functions are as follow:
Aorta
It is the body's largest artery. Takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the
body.
Pulmonary Artery
Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
Oxygenated blood
Carrying oxygen
.
Deoxygenated blood
Carrying little or oxygen
Atria
The two hollow chambers at the top of the heart are called the atria. Individually,
they are named the left atrium and the right atrium, based on their position in the
heart. The right atrium collects unoxygenated blood that has returned from the body,
while the left atrium collects oxygenated blood that has returned from the lungs.
Pulmonary Vein
Takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
Ventricles
The two hollow chambers at the bottom of the heart, the ventricles, receive blood
from the atria. When the heart contracts, the right ventricle pushes blood into an
artery that leads to the lungs; the blood will be oxygenated before it returns to the
heart. The left ventricle pushes blood into the body’s blood vessels for circulation
through the body. Since the left ventricle must be forceful enough to deliver
adequate blood to your entire body, it is the largest and strongest of the four heart
chambers.
Septum
The septum is a thick muscular wall that runs down the middle of the heart. It
separates the left atrium and ventricle from the right atrium and ventricle. Certain
heart defects create holes in the septum, allowing unoxygenated and oxygenated
blood to mix together, which ultimately impairs the heart’s ability to function. These
septal defects are typically present at birth and vary in size and severity. Small
holes might never produce symptoms and often require no special treatment. Large
holes, on the other hand, can eventually cause damage to the lungs and lead to
heart failure. While some moderate to large defects can be corrected with
medication, others require surgery.
Coronary Vessels
Supply the heart muscle with its blood supply
Arteries
Carry blood AWAY from the heart
Veins
Carry blood TOWARDS the heart
Valves
Valves separate the various parts of the heart from one another. They allow blood into
places it’s supposed to be and keep it out of places it’s not supposed to be. The mitral
valve separates the left atrium and the left ventricle, while the tricuspid valve separates
the right atrium and the right ventricle. The aortic valve lies between the left ventricle
and the aorta, which leads to the body’s network of blood vessels, and the pulmonary
valve lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, which leads to the lungs.
These valves open and close in response to pressure changes inside the various parts
of the heart.
Vena Cava
It is the largest vein in the body. it carries blood from the body back to the heart.
Right side
The right atrium fills with unoxygenated blood from the body. When the ventricle is full,
the tricuspid valve opens to allow blood to flow from the atrium into the right ventricle.
When the pressure in the right ventricle gets too high, the tricuspid valve closes to shut
off blood flow into the ventricle. As the heart contracts, the pulmonary valve opens and
allows the right ventricle to push blood into the pulmonary artery and lungs. Once the
ventricle is empty, the pulmonary valve closes to prevent blood from flowing back into
the ventricle.
Left side
The now-oxygenated blood returns from the lungs and enters the left atrium. When the
left atrium is full, the mitral valve opens to allow blood from the left atrium to flow into the
left ventricle. Once the pressure in the left ventricle gets too high, it closes the mitral
valve and stops blood flow into the ventricle. When the heart contracts, the aortic valve
opens and the left ventricle pushes blood into the aorta, which leads to the body’s blood
vessels. Once the left ventricle is empty, the aortic valve closes to prevent the back-flow
of blood.
The heart functionally consists of two pumps separated by a partition. The right pump
receives deoxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs. The left pump
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it to the body. Each pump consists
of an atrium and a ventricle separated by a valve.
BLOOD VESSELS: Human beings have a closed type of circulatory system in which
blood does not come in direct contact with body tissues. Instead the blood flows in
restricted pathways called blood vessels. Materials are exchanged between blood and
body tissues through the walls of blood vessels. Thus blood vessels are pathways of
blood flow in human body. There are three main types of blood vessels



Arteries (which transport the blood away from the heart)
Capillaries (which connect the arteries and veins, are the smallest of the blood
vessels, and are where oxygen, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged within the
tissues.)
Veins (which transport the blood towards the heart)
The walls of the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system usually consist of three
layers or tunics:



tunica externa (adventitia)-the outer connective tissue layer;
tunica media-the middle smooth muscle layer (may also contain varying amounts
of elastic fibers in medium and large arteries);
tunica intima-the inner endothelial lining of the blood vessels.
Arteries are usually further subdivided into three classes, according to the variable
amounts of smooth muscle and elastic fibers contributing to the thickness of the tunica
media, the overall size of the vessel, and its function.



Large elastic arteries contain substantial amounts of elastic fibers in the tunica
media, allowing expansion and recoil during the normal cardiac cycle. This helps
maintain a constant flow of blood during diastole. Examples of large elastic
arteries are the aorta, the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery,
the left subclavian artery, and the pulmonary trunk.
Medium muscular arteries are composed of a tunica media that contains
mostly smooth muscle fibers. This characteristic allows these vessels to regulate
their diameter and control the flow of blood to different parts of the body.
Examples of medium muscular arteries are most of the named arteries, including
the femoral, axillary, and radial arteries.
Small arteries and arterioles control the filling of the capillaries and directly
contribute to the arterial pressure in the vascular system.
Veins also are subdivided into three classes.



Large veins contain some smooth muscle in the tunica media, but the thickest
layer is the tunica externa. Examples of large veins are the superior vena cava,
the inferior vena cava, and the portal vein.
Small and medium veins contain small amounts of smooth muscle, and the
thickest layer is the tunica externa. Examples of small and medium veins are
superficial veins in the upper and lower limbs and deeper veins of the leg and
forearm.
Venules are the smallest veins and drain the capillaries.
Although veins are similar in general structure to arteries, they have a number of
distinguishing features.




The walls of veins, specifically the tunica media, are thin.
The luminal diameters of veins are large.
There often are multiple veins (venae comitantes) closely associated with
arteries in peripheral regions.
Valves often are present in veins, particularly in peripheral vessels inferior to the
level of the heart. These are usually paired cusps that facilitate blood flow toward
the heart.
BLOOD: Blood is a specialized tissue of body that exists in fluid form. It is one of the
five basic types of tissues of human body. Blood consists of two major portions: Blood
cells and Plasma. Plasma is the watery portion of blood that makes it a fluid. 90% of
blood plasma is water and remaining 10% are proteins, inclusions and waste products
etc. Blood cells are of three main types: Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells
(WBCs) and Platelets.
Pathologies:
HEART:
 Valve disease and diagnostic procedures:
Valve problems consist of two basic types:


incompetence (insufficiency), which results from poorly
functioning valves; and
stenosis, a narrowing of the orifice, caused by the valve's
inability to open fully.
For example mitral stenosis, mitral regurgitation, aortic stenosis, arotic
regurgitation, tricuspid stenosis etc.
Echocardiography (echo) is the main test for diagnosing heart valve
disease. But an ECG (electrocardiogram) or chest X ray commonly is
used to reveal certain signs of the condition. If these signs are
present, echo usually is done to confirm the diagnosis.
Doctors also may recommend other tests and procedures if you're
diagnosed with heart valve disease. For example, you may
have cardiac catheterization, stress testing, or cardiac MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging). These tests and procedures help the doctors to
assess how severe the condition is so he or she can plan the
treatment.
 Coronary artery disease and diagnostic procedures:
Occlusion of a major coronary artery leads to an inadequate
oxygenation of an area of myocardium and cell death (i.e., myocardial
infarction).
The following diagnostic test can help in diagnosis:
ECG, chest X ray, cardiac catheterization, coronary angiography, blood
lipid profile and radionuclide tests.

The most common abnormalities that occur during development are those
produced by a defect in the atrial and ventricular septa. For example
Atrial septal defect (ASD)
Ventriculoseptal defect (VSD).
Patent or persistent ductus arteriosus (PDA).
To diagnose we do physical examination and listen heart sounds, chest X-ray, ECG,
echocardiography, pulse oximetry, cardiac catheterization.

Arrhythmias
Laboratory and diagnostic test: Do physical examination and listen heart sound for
murmur, pulse, check the swelling of the leg and feet, ECG, blood test, chest X-ray,
echocardiography.
BLOOD VESSELS:

Atherosclerosis
Laboratory and diagnostic test: We do physical examination, blood test, ECG, chest Xray, ankle/brachial index, echocardiography, CT scan, angiography.

Varicose veins
Laboratory and diagnostic test: physical examination, duplex ultrasound, angiogram.
Q #02… Explain the working of digestive system. Begin by first identifying significant
anatomical parts and explaining which part play a part in the overall system. Then,
name important pathology that afflicts those particular anatomical parts just name. Also,
choose which laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures would be used in compliance
with that specific pathology.
Answer:
A system of organs in which the major function is to convert food into simpler, absorb
nutrients to keep the body functioning and healthy.
Figure shows Anatomy of the gastrointestinal system. The liver overlies the gallbladder
and a portion of the stomach, and the stomach overlies part of the pancreas.
The overall function of the gastrointestinal system is to process ingested foods into
molecular forms that are then transferred, along with salts and water to the body’s
internal environment, where they can be distributed to cells by the circulatory system.
The adult gastrointestinal tract is a tube approximately 15 ft long, running through the
body from mouth to anus. The lumen of the tract, like the hole in a doughnut, is
continuous with the external environment, which means that its contents are technically
outside the body. This fact is relevant to understanding some of the tract’s properties.
For example, the large intestine is inhabited by billions of bacteria, most of which are
harmless and even beneficial in this location. However, if the same bacteria enter the
internal environment, as may happen, for example, in the case of a ruptured appendix,
they may cause a severe infection. Most food enters the gastrointestinal tract as large
particles containing macromolecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides, which are
unable to cross the intestinal epithelium. Before ingested food can be absorbed,
therefore, it must be dissolved and broken down into small molecules. This dissolving
and breaking-down process—digestion—is accomplished by the action of hydrochloric
acid in the stomach, bile from the liver, and a variety of digestive enzymes that are
released by the system’s exocrine glands. Each of these substances is released into the
lumen of the GI tract by the process of secretion. The molecules produced by digestion
then move from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract across a layer of epithelial cells
and enter the blood or lymph. This process is called absorption. While digestion,
secretion, and absorption are taking place, contractions of smooth muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract wall serve two functions; they mix the luminal contents with the
various secretions, and they move the contents through the tract from mouth to anus.
These contractions are referred to as the motility of the gastrointestinal tract. The
functions of the gastrointestinal system can be described in terms of these four
processes—digestion, secretion, absorption, and motility.
Figure shows the four processes of digestive system i.e. digestion, absorption,
secretion and mortality.
The parts of digestive system along with their function:
PATHOLOGIES OF DIGESTIVE TRACT:















Oral ulcers
Dysphagia
Gastro esophageal reflex disease
barrett’s esophagus
gastritis
diarrhea
constipation
crohn’s disease
ulcerative colitis
gall stones(cholelithiasis)
hemorrhoids
fistula
hernias
hepatitis
peptic ulcers
There are many more diseases of digestive tract here is not even a half.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS:
Laboratory tests
1) fecal occult blood test
2) stool culture
Imaging tests
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
barium studies
colorectal transient time
CT scan
Defecography
MRI
Oropharyneal (swallowing) studies
Ultra sound
Radio imaging studies
Endoscopic procedures
1) Colonoscopy
2) Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
3) Sigmoidoscopy
4) Bronchoscopy
Other procedures
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Anorectal mamometry
Esophageal mamometry
Gastric mamometry
Capsule endoscopy
Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)
Q #03… Examine the endocrine system. Start by identifying endocrine glands and
explaining where each gland is located in body system. Then, indicate any disease or
pathology, including common abbreviations that, afflicts those particular anatomical
parts just named. Also, choose which laboratory tests and diagnostic procedures would
be used in compliance with that specific pathology.
Answer:
The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones
produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from the
nervous system as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones produced
by other glands. By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these glands help to
maintain the body’s homeostasis. Cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual
development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion are the
functions.
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland
selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the
finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body.
Some types of glands release their secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine
glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside
the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major
hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported to cells in other
parts of the body.
The major glands that make up the human endocrine system include the:








hypothalamus
pituitary gland
thyroid
Parathyroids
adrenal glands
pineal body
gonads (which include the ovaries and testes)
pancreas (islet of langerhans)
Anatomy of the Endocrine System







Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain stem
and inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different functions in the nervous system,
and is also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the
pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains special cells called neurosecretory cells—
neurons that secrete hormones:
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the anterior pituitary
gland. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating
hormone. GHRH and GHIH work to regulate the release of growth hormone—GHRH
stimulates growth hormone release, GHIH inhibits its release. GnRH stimulates the
release of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone while CRH stimulates
the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The last two hormones—oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone—are produced by the hypothalamus and transported to the
posterior pituitary, where they are stored and later released.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized lump of tissue
connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain. Many blood vessels
surround the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it releases throughout the body.
Situated in a small depression in the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary
gland is actually made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior
pituitary glands.
1. Posterior Pituitary: The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but
nervous tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small extension of the hypothalamus
through which the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus
extend. These neurosecretory cells create 2 hormones in the hypothalamus that are
stored and released by the posterior pituitary:
Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during childbirth and the release of milk during
breastfeeding.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss in the body by increasing the re-uptake
of water in the kidneys and reducing blood flow to sweat glands.
2. Anterior Pituitary: The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary
gland. The function of the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and
inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary produces 6 important
hormones:

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name suggests, is a tropic hormone
responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid gland.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex, the outer part of the
adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the follicle cells of the gonads to produce
gametes—ova in females and sperm in males.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads to produce the sex hormones—
estrogens in females and testosterone in males.

Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many target cells throughout the body by
stimulating their growth, repair, and reproduction.

Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body, chief of which is that it stimulates
the mammary glands of the breast to produce milk.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found just
posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone
melatonin that helps to regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian
rhythm. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited by stimulation from the
photoreceptors of the retina. This light sensitivity causes melatonin to be produced only
in low light or darkness. Increased melatonin production causes humans to feel drowsy
at nighttime when the pineal gland is active.
Thyroid Gland
the thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck and
wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3 major
hormones:



Calcitonin
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the blood rise above a certain set
point. Calcitonin functions to reduce the concentration of calcium ions in the blood by
aiding the absorption of calcium into the matrix of bones. The hormones T3 and T4 work
together to regulate the body’s metabolic rate. Increased levels of T3 and T4 lead to
increased cellular activity and energy usage in the body.
Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid gland are 4 small masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior
side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone parathyroid
hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the
parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the blood drop below a set point. PTH
stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the calcium containing bone matrix to release
free calcium ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys to return calcium
ions filtered out of the blood back to the bloodstream so that it is conserved.

Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular glands found immediately superior to
the kidneys. The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers, each with their own
unique functions: the outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla.
Adrenal cortex: The adrenal cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes:
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens.
1. Glucocorticoids have many diverse functions, including the breakdown of proteins and
lipids to produce glucose. Glucocorticoids also function to reduce inflammation and
immune response.
2. Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a group of hormones that help to
regulate the concentration of mineral ions in the body.
3. Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in the adrenal cortex to
regulate the growth and activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones. In adult
males, the amount of androgens produced by the testes is many times greater than the
amount produced by the adrenal cortex, leading to the appearance of male secondary
sex characteristics.

Adrenal medulla: The adrenal medulla produces the hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine under stimulation by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system. Both of these hormones help to increase the flow of blood to the brain and
muscles to improve the “fight-or-flight” response to stress. These hormones also work to
increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure while decreasing the flow of
blood to and function of organs that are not involved in responding to emergencies.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located in the abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior
to the stomach. The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it contains
both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just
about 1% of the total mass of the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout
the pancreas called islets of Langerhans. Within these islets are 2 types of cells—alpha
and beta cells. The alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is responsible for
raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the
polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream. The beta cells
produce the hormone insulin, which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels
after a meal. Insulin triggers the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it
is added to glycogen molecules for storage.


Gonads
The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in males—are responsible for producing the
sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondary sex
characteristics of adult females and adult males.
Testes: The testes are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males that
produce the androgen testosterone in males after the start of puberty. Testosterone has
effects on many parts of the body, including the muscles, bones, sex organs, and hair
follicles. This hormone causes growth and increases in strength of the bones and
muscles, including the accelerated growth of long bones during adolescence. During
puberty, testosterone controls the growth and development of the sex organs and body
hair of males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In men who have inherited genes
for baldness testosterone triggers the onset of androgenic alopecia, commonly known
as male pattern baldness.
Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in the pelvic body
cavity lateral and superior to the uterus in females. The ovaries produce the female sex
hormones progesterone and estrogens. Progesterone is most active in females during
ovulation and pregnancy where it maintains appropriate conditions in the human body to
support a developing fetus. Estrogens are a group of related hormones that function as
the primary female sex hormones. The release of estrogen during puberty triggers the
development of female secondary sex characteristics such as uterine development,
breast development, and the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also triggers the increased
growth of bones during adolescence that lead to adult height and proportions.
PATHOLOGIES AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS:
Types:
Endocrine disorders may be subdivided into three groups:
1. Endocrine gland hyposecretion (leading to hormone deficiency)
2. Endocrine gland hypersecretion (leading to hormone excess)
3. Tumours (benign or malignant) of endocrine glands
Adrenal disorders

Adrenal insufficiency

Addison's disease

Mineralocorticoid deficiency


Diabetes
Adrenal hormone excess

Conn's syndrome

Cushing's syndrome

Pheochromocytoma

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (adrenogenital syndrome)

Adrenocortical carcinoma
 For diagnosis we do serum and urine electrolytes.
 17-Hydroxyprogesterone Test
 ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) Test
 Aldosterone and Renin Test
 Collection of a 24-Hour Urine Specimen
 Cortisol Test
 DHEAS (dehydroepiandrosterone) Test
 Dexamethasone suppression test
Glucose homeostasis disorders

Diabetes mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes



Type 2 Diabetes

Gestational Diabetes

Mature Onset Diabetes of the Young
Hypoglycemia

Idiopathic hypoglycemia

Insulinoma
Glucagonoma
For diagnosis we do blood glucose (BS) levels, fasting blood glucose (FBS),
postprandial blood glucose (PPBS), random blood glucose levels, oral glucose
tolerance test ()OGTT and glycosylated hemoglobin(HbA1c) and urine sugar and
ketone levels.
Thyroid disorders

Goiter

Hyperthyroidism

Hypothyroidism

Thyroiditis

Thyroid carcinoma
We diagnose by thyroid function test (TFTs) that include T4, T3 and TSH levels. MRI,
thyroid uptake and imaging test and ultra sonography can also helps us.
Calcium homeostasis disorders and Metabolic bone disease
Parathyroid gland disorders

Primary hyperparathyroidism

Secondary hyperparathyroidism

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism

Hypoparathyroidism

Pseudohypoparathyroidism

Osteoporosis

Rickets and osteomalacia
We do serum calcium and potassium levels. Bone density scan i.e. DEXA scan.
Pituitary gland disorders
Posterior pituitary

Diabetes insipidus
Anterior pituitary

Hypopituitarism

Pituitary tumors

Pituitary adenomas

Prolactinoma (or Hyperprolactinemia)

Acromegaly, gigantism

Cushing's disease
We diagnose by doing MRI of brain, in some cases CT scan, lumbar puncture and CT
angiography can also help us.
Sex hormone disorders
Disorders of sex development or intersex disorders


Hermaphroditism

Gonadal dysgenesis

Androgen insensitivity syndromes
Hypogonadism (Gonadotropin deficiency)




Inherited (genetic and chromosomal) disorders

Klinefelter syndrome

Turner syndrome
Acquired disorders

Ovarian failure (also known as Premature Menopause)

Testicular failure
Disorders of Puberty

Delayed puberty

Precocious puberty
Menstrual function or fertility disorder

Amenorrhea

Polycystic ovary syndrome
We diagnose by doing hormonal levels.
Reference:



Human Physiology the Mechanisms of Body Function 8th edition.
Gray’s anatomy for students. 2nd edition.
Clinically oriented anatomy 6th edition by Keith L. Moore.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disease

http://www.mananatomy.com/body-systems/cardiovascular-system
Thank you 