Philosophers on why be
moral
Michael Lacewing
enquiries@alevelphilosophy.co.uk
Hobbes on contract
• Morality is product of a
contract, which it is rational
for each of us to agree to
• Because it is in my selfinterest (egoism)
• Morality as means to end,
given by egoism
• This is also ‘rational’: it is
rational to do what benefits
oneself
The moral contract
• Better not to be harmed by others – hence
constraints on others’ behaviour; but better
not to be constrained
• Solution: agree to constraints given that
others agree; not best for me, but best I can
get
• Better to trust and co-operate; agreement to
be moral generates trust
The ‘free rider’ problem
• In a situation of trust, if everyone else is
acting morally, it is even better to act selfinterestedly – at least if you can get away
with it.
• But how can I trust others to keep the contract?
• Morality is collectively in everyone’s selfinterest, but it is in each person’s selfinterest to break the agreement – knowing
this, we won’t trust each other!
Plato on self-interest
• Would it be bad for you to get away
with being immoral?
• Yes: the soul has ‘parts’ that can be
in conflict, e.g. desire v. reason
– Desires do not consider what is good for
us; when desires control us, we cannot
recognise what is good
• Only when reason is in charge is
inner conflict avoided
– We recognise what is morally right and
want to do it
– We are happier
Self-interest and morality
• Can we say what is in our self-interest
without referring to morality?
– E.g. cheating - might make you feel happy at the
time, but you don’t gain what is of real value
(‘achievement’)
• Self-interest is getting what is truly valuable
– But some values are moral values - so morality
precedes self-interest, and can’t be defined as a
means to self-interest
Objections to Plato
• Plato shows that we must be prudent,
but not that prudence is the same as
morality.
– He assumes that reason will lead us to act
morally – but this is what we are
questioning.
• Is happiness the absence of inner
conflict?
Kant on reason
• Being moral because it
benefits me doesn’t explain
the importance of morality.
• Morality is the same for
everyone. Therefore, to act
morally is to act in a way
everyone can act.
• This can be worked out using
reason alone, independent of
desires.
– Why be moral? Because it is the
same as being rational.
Hume on sympathy
• It is not irrational to do what not
everyone can do. Reason only
works out how to get what we
want (means-end reasoning).
• Morality is based on sympathy,
which is a natural human
motivation.
– We are moral because we care. So it
would be inconsistent with your own
desires to act immorally.
– If you really don’t care about other
people, you are probably a sociopath.
More on sympathy
• This doesn’t mean that morality is
subjective.
– You might not care the ‘right’ amount: ‘in order
to pave the way for [sympathy], and give a
proper discernment of its object, it is often
necessary, we find, that much reasoning should
precede’.
• Someone who is immoral is not always
irrational – but we can still criticise them for
being immoral.
Aristotle on ‘flourishing’
• We all aim at living the best life
we can. But what this is
depends on what we are.
• Human beings are capable of
reason.
• So living well is living in
accordance with reason.
• Our character is important here
- to be virtuous is to have
desires and emotions that are
‘reasonable’.
Virtue
• As we are social, we need to consider what
counts as the most appropriate response to
living with others.
• E.g. anger; to feel it ‘at the right times,
with reference to the right objects, towards
the right people, with the right motive, and
in the right way’
• The moral life is the life that is best for us.
Development
• The best life for you involves recognising
other people’s value, and treating them
accordingly.
• Failing to be motivated by other people’s
rights or needs means not having the right
relationship with them.
• Morality is not distinct from self-interest - a
good person does not think that being moral
is no good for them.