Programming and
Special Event Planning
From theory to practice
Questions for the day:






What is programming?
Why provide programs?
What do they offer
consumers?
How do programmers decide
what to offer?
How can program theories
be used in practice?
What programming theories
appeal to you? Why?
Programming
definitions:






According to Carpenter & Howe, 1985:
"Programming, a continual process of
planning, implementing, and evaluating leisure
experiences for an individual or a group of
individuals is unique to the body of knowledge
in parks, recreation and leisure services".
According to Kraus, 1997:
"Programming is the process that uses the
human, fiscal and other physical resources of
an agency to provide recreation and leisure
activities and services to community residents
or to members of an organization".
According to Rossman, 1989:
“Programming... is the development of leisure
opportunities by manipulating and creating
environments to maximize the probability that
participants will find the satisfaction they seek”.







According to Bullaro and Edginton, 1986:
“Creating the leisure experience involves
arranging for or assisting people to be placed
in a social, physical, or natural environment.
This may involve planning and organizing,
assembling materials and supplies, arranging
the use of facilities, providing leadership of
other actions that lead to the creation of
opportunities for leisure “.
According to Farrell & Lundegren, 1991:
“Program.... encompasses a) the activity in
which people participate, b) the facility that
enables the experience to take place, and c)
the leadership that has been responsible for
facilitating this experience”.
According to Russell, 1982:
“Programs are those magic moments of joyous
participation that occur when the available and
necessary resources have been stirred
together just right by planning. But programs
do not just happen because planning does not
just happen. Planning is organized
forethought”.
What is your definition of programming?
Why provide programs?
What do they offer
consumers?




Recreation and tourism
experiences provide benefits to
people.
Many people do not know how to
access recreation and tourism
experiences themselves.
Programmers provide recreation
and tourism experiences through
programs – which in turn,
provide benefits to consumers.
So – the product you are
providing is an experience. You
manufacture that experience in a
program and provide it to those
who need the benefits.
Nature of the experience
(product) you are
providing. p-21-23





It is intangible
Each experience is different
It is produced and consumed
at the same time
It is perishable
What does this mean if you
are manufacturing leisure
experiences as a
programmer?
How do programmers
decide what to offer?







Remember – there are many strategies that
can be used to decide what programs should
be offered (p-29).
Look at page 29 for an overview of recreation
and tourism strategies.
What are some of the advantages and
disadvantages of some of these strategies?
Which ones appeal to you?
Note: As practitioners we have been moving
more towards providing programs WITH
people instead of FOR people (p- 30).
Depending on the type of organization you
work for – you will likely use a different
approach to programming.
Example: private sector often uses a
marketing approach, public sector often uses a
direct planning approach, not for profit sector
often uses a community development
approach.
How can program theories
be used in practice?

“We develop a process,
which results in a product,
that enables the interaction
of participants to achieve
some benefit through leisure.
We can undertake this effort
in a variety of manners – by
using a cafeteria style, a
traditional approach,
programming by objectives,
and others” (DeGraaf, et al.,
1999, p: 41).
Theories and Models:
Help us understand why we do what
we do, or how we do what we do.
 Let’s discuss a few from Chapt. 3:
 Systems theory – programmers
input resources (supplies, facility,
instructor, schedule etc.) and use a
process to achieve some outputs
(I.e. leisure experiences).
 Benefits driven model (Benefits
Based Management BBM): focus
on the output of programming to
be benefits (individual, social,
economic and environmental).
More theories and
models…



Special events model: suggests that
most special events follow a traditional
programming format but use more of a
flow chart of tasks that need to be
completed at specific times (p.46
examples).
Flow theory: suggests that
programmers should seek to provide
experiences for people that match their
skill level to challenges = flow.
Motivation based theories: suggest
that programmers should respond to,
and provide experiences that meet
people needs.
More theories and
models…



Symbolic interaction theory:
suggests that programmers need to
understand participants and human
behavior when designing experiences.
Remembers that people are a part of
the actual experience.
Sociocultural theory: suggests that
programmers need to understand the
influences that society places on
people and provide experiences that
enhance society.
Comprehensive theory: suggests
that programmers combine a little of
everything into what they do –
understanding of human behaviour,
history, sociology, systems theory etc.)
Theory to practice…

“ Program theories are the
underlying structure of what we
do as park, recreation and
[tourism] professionals. The
theory we utilize to help us
understand programming
provides the framework on which
we fashion and accomplish our
programming tasks. The theory
we buy into drives the focus and
direction of our work” (DeGraaf
et al., 1999, p-52).
Question…




What theories or models
appeal to you?
Why?
How will you use them to
guide your efforts as a
programmer?
Next day… Chapter four –
What drives programmers
and special event planners?
Think about homework
assignment #1