Hy 235
Fall, 2010
PAUL AND THE MAKING OF THE EARLY
CHRISTIAN CHURCH
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St. Paul the Apostle (Hebrew: ‫ שאול התרסי‬Šaʾul HaTarsi,
meaning "Saul of Tarsus", Ancient Greek: Σαῦλος Saulos and
Παῦλος Paulos[1]), the "Apostle to the Gentiles"[2] was,
together with Saint Peter, the most notable of Early Christian
missionaries. There is no indication that Paul ever physically
met Jesus.[3] Unlike the Twelve Apostles, he came to faith
through a vision of the resurrected Jesus[4] and stressed that
his apostolic authority was based on his vision. Paul is said to
have received the Gospel by "the revelation of Jesus Christ";[5]
according to Acts, his conversion took place as he was traveling
the road to Damascus.
Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally
attributed to Paul, though in some cases the authorship is
disputed. Paul had often employed an amanuensis, only
occasionally writing himself.[6][7] As a sign of authenticity, the
writers of these epistles[8] sometimes employ a passage
presented as being in Paul's own handwriting. These epistles
were circulated within the Christian community. They were
prominent in the first New Testament canon ever proposed (by
Marcion), and they were eventually included in the orthodox
Christian canon. They are believed to be the earliest-written
books of the New Testament.
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more
significant than any other New Testament author.[9] His
influence on the main strands of Christian thought has been
demonstrable: from St. Augustine of Hippo to the controversies
between Gottschalk and Hincmar of Reims; between Thomism
and Molinism; Martin Luther, John Calvin and the Arminians; to
Jansenism and the Jesuit theologians, and even to the German
church of the twentieth century through the writings of the
scholar Karl Barth, whose commentary on the Letter to the
Romans had a political as well as theological impact.
APOSTLE
PAUL
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Paul by El Greco
DEAD SEA SCROLLS AND EARLY
CHRISTIANITY
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JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
The Dead Sea Scrolls include a range of contemporary documents that serve as a window
on a turbulent and critical period in the history of Judaism. In addition to the three groups
identified by Josephus (Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes), Judaism was further divided
into numerous religious sects and political parties. With the destruction of the Temple and
the commonwealth in 70 C.E., all that came to an end. Only the Judaism of the Pharisees-Rabbinic Judaism--survived. Reflected in Qumran literature is a Judaism in transition:
moving from the religion of Israel as described in the Bible to the Judaism of the rabbis as
expounded in the Mishnah (a third-century compilation of Jewish laws and customs which
forms the basis of modern Jewish practice).
The Dead Sea Scrolls, which date back to the events described in the New Testament,
have added to our understanding of the Jewish background of Christianity. Scholars have
pointed to similarities between beliefs and practices outlined in the Qumran literature and
those of early Christians. These parallels include comparable rituals of baptism,
communal meals, and property. Most interesting is the parallel organizational structures:
the sectarians divided themselves into twelve tribes led by twelve chiefs, similar to the
structure of the early Church, with twelve apostles who, according to Jesus, would to sit on
twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. Many scholars believe that both the
literature of Qumran and the early Christian teachings stem from a common stream within
Judaism and do not reflect a direct link between the Qumran community and the early
Christians.
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THE WORLD OF THE SCROLLS
In 1947, young Bedouin shepherds, searching for a stray goat in the Judean Desert,
entered a long-untouched cave and found jars filled with ancient scrolls. That initial
discovery by the Bedouins yielded seven scrolls and began a search that lasted nearly a
decade and eventually produced thousands of scroll fragments from eleven caves. During
those same years, archaeologists searching for a habitation close to the caves that might
help identify the people who deposited the scrolls, excavated the Qumran ruin, a complex
of structures located on a barren terrace between the cliffs where the caves are found
and the Dead Sea. Within a fairly short time after their discovery, historical, paleographic,
and linguistic evidence, as well as carbon-14 dating, established that the scrolls and the
Qumran ruin dated from the third century B.C.E. to 68 C.E. They were indeed ancient!
Coming from the late Second Temple Period, a time when Jesus of Nazareth lived, they
are older than any other surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures by almost one
thousand years.
Since their discovery nearly half a century ago, the scrolls and the identity of the nearby
settlement have been the object of great scholarly and public interest, as well as heated
debate and controversy. Why were the scrolls hidden in the caves? Who placed them
there? Who lived in Qumran? Were its inhabitants responsible for the scrolls and their
presence in the caves? Of what significance are the scrolls to Judaism and Christianity?
This exhibition presents twelve Dead Sea Scroll fragments and archaeological artifacts
courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority as well as supplementary materials from the
Library of Congress. It is designed to retell the story of the scrolls' discovery; explore their
archaeological and historical context; introduce the scrolls themselves; explore the
various theories concerning the nature of the Qumran community; and examine some of
the challenges facing modern researchers as they struggle to reconstruct the scrolls from
the tens of thousands of fragments that remain.
OR, THROUGH CHRISTIAN HISTORY.COM
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During the Middle Ages, art, architecture, and drama brought the stories and truths of Scripture to a
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Defying the king and the church, Tyndale lived and died to give the Bible to the people.
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Each session begins with a Key Question and a few paragraphs of context. This tells you
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THE NICENE CREED
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The Nicene Creed
We believe in one God, father almighty, maker of all things, both visible and
invisible. And in one lord, Jesus Christ, the son of God, begotten from the
father, only-begotten, that is from the being* of the father, God from God,
light from light, true God from True God, begotten not made, one in being**
with the father, through whom all things came to be, both those in heaven
and those on the earth, who because of us human beings and because of
our salvation descended, became enfleshed, became human, suffered and
rose on the third day, ascending to the heavens, coming to judge the living
and dead. And in the Holy Spirit. The catholic and apostolic Church
anathematizes those who say: there was when he was not; and before being
born he was not; or that he came to be from things that are not; or that the
Son of God is from a different hypostasis or ousia or mutable or changeable.
CHRISTIANITY TAKES SHAPE IN FORM AND DOCTRINE (CHAP.
6 OF LATOURETTE)
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So far as our records enable us to
determine, Jesus gave little thought to a
continuing organization and did not put
the heart of his teaching in any single
verbal forumla which was to be binding
upon his followers. (p 112).
See passage in Matthew about Peter and
the church (only mentioned twice in the
Gospels). “Thou art Peter, and upon this
rock I will build my church, and the gates
of hell of hell shall not prevail against it.
And I will give unto thee the keys of the
kingdom of heaven…” Nothing said about
giving Peter authority to transmit the
“power of the keys” to a series of
successors, whatever else the passage
may mean.
ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH, PART 1
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Great variety in first two or three generations.
The ideal was “inclusive unity.”
To some extent the church at Jerusalem took the lead, especially on the
controversial question of how much should Christians conform to the Jewish
law.
By the end of the first century, certain organizational features developed, which,
in fact have persisted to today offices and officials, including deacons (from the
Greek meaning servant or minister), elders (the English translation of the Greek,
from which the word presbyter is derived, and from which, in turn, comes the
world priest), and bishops (from the Greek meaning something of an overseer or
superintendent). Even women may have served as deacons in the early church.
Also, apostles , prophets, and teachers are all mentioned in Romans, as well as
evangelists, pastors, and exhorters.
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By the second century, bishops were
clearly emerging as the heads of
particular churches, and one bishop,
of Antioch, presuming to address
himself with authority to other
churches. As early as first quarter of
first century, Bishop Ignatius of
Antioch (martyred in Rome under
Emperor Trajan, 107 A.D.) was writing
of the primacy of the bishops, the
need for baptism and the eucharist to
be administered by them, or those
they delegated, and he also spoke of
presbyters and deacons. These were
all to be honored and obeyed.
Christ had appointed the apostles and
the apostles had appointed the
bishops and deacons and that was
the line of succession and future
appointments.
ORGANIZATION OF THE
EARLY CHURCH, PART 2
THE CHURCH AT ROME
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Basically, the deference given to
Rome as the capital of the Empire
was given to the early Christian
community in the capital as well.
Furthermore, it enjoyed the prestige
of the association with both Peter and
Paul, although neither was its
founder.
As early as the third quarter of the
second century, Bishop Iraneus of
Lyon in Gaul declared that “it is a
matter of ncessity that every church
should agree with this church [i. e. of
Rome] on account of its preminent
authority.” [p. 118]
THE “GREEK MENACE”
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Danger to early Christian church was the incorporation of some of the attitudes of
the Hellenistic mind.
The confidence in philosophy as the way to truth; sometimes explaining the Gospel
in categories of Greek philosophy, thus distorting it.
Sharp disjunction between spirit and matter, a basic assumption in Hellenism.
It molded the thinking and attitude of Christian converts from Hellenistic
background.
This attitude regarded matter, including the flesh, as evil, and pure spirit as good.
Man was a compound of flesh and spirit. “To it, therefore, the goal of every [next
page]
THE “GREEK MENACE”
Man’s striving must be salvation by the emancipation of the spirit
from the contamination of the flesh.” (p. 123)
“Here was an accounting for the presence of evil, that perennial problem
for thoughtful and sensitive souls, which made a great appeal and had
sufficient resemblance to the issue presented by the incarnation and
the cross to attract many Christians. Again and again we shall find it as
a recurring theme in the asceticism, thought, and mysticism of those
who have borne the Christian name, among them some of the mosst
deoted Christians, men and women who have been esteemed ideal
exemplars of the Christian faith.” (ibid.)
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OTHER HERESIES IN EARLY CHRISTENDOM
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Gnosticism (pp. 123-125)
Marcionites (pp. 125-128)
Montanists (pp. 128-129)
All these “heresies” forced Christians to develop tighter organization,
more clarification and formulation of beliefs.
Up until the middle of the first century, all that was required for
Christian fellowship was repentance, affirmation that Jesus is Lord,
baptism, and reception of the Holy Spirit.
The “Catholic” church developed in this era which “soon…embraced the
majority of those who thought themselves to be Christians.” (p. 130).
EARLY CATHOLIC CHURCH
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Earliest known use of “Catholic” church in Ignatius’ letter to the church at
Smyrna, in early second century. Catholic came to be associated with both
the universal and orthodox Church.
Three motives for formation of the Catholic Church
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Desire to unite all Christians in conscious fellowship
To preserve, transmit and spread the Christian gospel in its purity.
To bring all Christians together into a visible ‘body of Christ.’ (p. 130)
The endeavored to this in three ways.
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Apostolic succession of the episcopate as clear and uninterruped as possible to
ensure true transmission of apostolic teachings.
Creating and defining the New Testament to pass on the true teachings
Defining the Apostle’s creed to ensure orthodoxy
APOSTOLIC
SUCCESSION, PART I
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Given impetus by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons in Gaul, who in his
early life (he was a native of either Syria or Asia Minor) had seen
Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who had been instructed by the
apostles and had talked with many who had seen Christ. (p.
131ff). Irenaeus insisted that “the apostles had transmitted
faithfully and accurately what had been taught them by Christ
and had not, as the heretics asserted, intermingled with them
extraneous ideas.
The apostles had appointed as successors bishops who faithfully
passed on what Christ had taught.
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION, PART
2
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These bishops were followed by others in an unbroken line who were
also guardians and guarantors of apostolic teaching.
Peter and Paul had established the church at Rome and then
appointed Linus and he in turn had been followed by twelve others,
all in direct line from Peter and Paul, and Jesus himself.
Eusibius, writing in the fourth century and the most famous of early
historians of the Church, confirmed the apostolic succession and
this became one of the marks of the Catholic Church.
Bishops came together in synods to decide on impt. matters, such
as declaring certain movements as heresies (the Montanists for
example) and expelling them from the Church.
Bishops began to emerge not only as administrators, but in charge
of the worship and supervised the entire life of the Church.
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION,
PART 3
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As bishops expanded in number and authority, so did the
number of presbyters and priests serving under their
authority.
Then, as early as the second century, a distinct cleavage
began to appear between clergy and laity (p. 133). The clergy
took on the semblance of a separate “order,” that designation
probably having been derived from the designation given to
roman magistrates in a tightly stratified society.
Bishops were elected by presbyters and other clergy in the
city, ratified by the congregation and approved by other
bishops.
Presbyters and deacons were selected and ordained by the
bishops. Below them were the “minor” orders: sub-deacons,
acolytes, exorcists, readers, and janitors.
Deaconesses exited in the eastern part of the Empire.
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION,
PART 4
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But the Bishop of Rome claimed greater authority, and it was
natural that the bishops of the larger cities, especially Rome,
should be more prominent than those of the smaller cities
and towns.
THE CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT IS
DETERMINED, 1
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Early on the Jewish scriptures leading them to Christ were
read in services. Then, by common usage and consent, books
of Christian authority were also brought together.
The letters of Paul were read, then the four Gospels, so that
by Iraneaus writing in the latter second century spoke of four
gospels.
Marcion seems to have been the first to assemble Christian
writings into a well define collection. This became the genesis
of the canon, a collection defined by the test for inclusion:
authorship by an apostle or close friend of an apostle.
Twenty seven books emerged as the New Testament. Some
were accepted readily, others took longer, such as the
Revelation of John, a distinctly prophetic book.
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Books like Hebrews, James, II Peter,
and II and III John were early
included in some lists; not in others.
Some prophets and prophetic
literature, especially after the “age of
the Apostles” were rejected by the
Catholic Church which challenged
the administrative regularity
represented by the bishops.
The first list with all 27 books
appears in 367 in a letter by
Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria.
Not only did apostolic authorship
confirm authority, but “a quality
which distinguished them from those
books which were rejected, a quality
which to the Christian mind was and
continues to be evidence of a
peculiar degree of divine inspiration,
the crown of the process of revelation
recorded in the Old Testament.” (p.
135)
THE CANON OF THE NEW
TESTAMENT IS DETERMINED,
2
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FORMATION OF THE
NEW TESTAMENT
CANON
Formation of the New Testament Canon
Charts and Documents for this section:
The New Testament Canon
Disputed Books of the New Testament
Ancient Canon Lists
Samples of Ancient Heretical Writings
Gradual and independent definition of the canon by elders. In the year 367 an influential bishop named
Athanasius published a list of books to be read in the churches under his care, which included precisely
those books we have in our Bibles (with this exception — he admitted Baruch and omitted Esther in the
Old Testament). Other such lists had been published by others, as early as the year 170, although they did
not all agree. How did the men who published these lists decide which books should be called Scripture?
Scholars who have studied this matter closely have concluded that the lists of books are merely
ratifications of the decisions of the majority of churches from earliest days. We are able to prove this by
examining the surviving works of Irenaeus (born 130), who lived in days before anyone felt it was
necessary to list the approved books. He quotes as Scripture all of the books and only the books that
appear in the list published on another continent and sixty years later by Origen.
It is evident that the elders of each congregation had approved certain writings and rejected others as
they became available, and it turned out, by the grace of God, that most of the churches were by the year
170 in agreement, having approved the same books independently. Prominent teachers were also
influential in this process. About that time bishops began to prevail in the Church, as governors of groups
of churches, and they simply ratified with these lists the results thus arrived at. The approved books were
then called the "canon" of Scripture, "canon" being a Greek word meaning "rod" or "ruler." These books
constituted the standard rule of faith for all the churches. We must not imagine that the canon was
imposed by ecclesiastical authorities. The canon grew up by many independent decisions of elders who
were responsible for their congregations alone.
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The elders received apostolic writings as authoritative. Then we must ask, how did the
elders of the churches decide which writings should be read in church as authoritative? The
answer is simple: They received the writings of the apostles and their closest companions,
and the writings endorsed by them. The entire Old Testament was received by the implicit
endorsement of the apostles. The Gospel of Matthew was written by an apostle. The Gospel
of Mark was written by the apostle Peter's closest disciple. The Gospel of Luke was written
by the apostle Paul's close companion. The Gospel of John was written by an apostle. The
Acts of the Apostles was written by Paul's close companion. Thirteen letters were received
from Paul. The epistle to the Hebrews was received as from Paul. The epistle of James
comes from the brother of the Lord, who exercised authority in Jerusalem with the apostles.
The epistle of Jude was from another brother of the Lord. The two epistles of Peter are from
an apostle. The three epistles of John are from an apostle, who also wrote the Revelation.
We may ask, How did they know that these writings were not forgeries? The churches did
not receive them from strangers. These documents were hand-delivered by friends of the
apostles to elders who also knew the apostles personally. Forgeries would be obvious,
especially if the writing promoted strange doctrines.
Minor disagreements in earliest days. Some disagreements arose along with the rise of
heresies. The elders of the churches became wary, and even began to doubt some of the
writings they had formerly received as copies from other churches. Writings which came
under question were Hebrews, James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and the Revelation of
John. The reasons for doubt were various. The author of Hebrews does not identify himself.
James was not an apostle, and his message seemed to contradict Paul's message. Jude
was not an apostle, and he quotes books which the churches did not receive as Scripture. 2
Peter, it seems, was not widely distributed at first. The author of 2 and 3 John does not
identify himself plainly. The author of the Revelation identifies himself as John, but does not
say that he is the apostle John, and the style of the book is different from the Gospel of
John. Nevertheless, the majority of churches received and used these books without
questioning them, while vigorously rejecting all others.
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Universal agreement in modern times. Today we have no good reason
for doubting the canon of the New Testament. It would be wrong for me
to suggest that everyone needs to investigate these matters and decide
for himself which books he will receive as Scripture, without any respect
for the decisions of the early churches. We are not in such a position to
judge as the early church was, and we are bound to respect the wellnigh unanimous opinion of so many Christians of the past. As Paul says
to the Corinthian innovators, "What! Was it from you that the word of
God went forth? Or came it unto you alone?" Against such presumption
he recommends that which is done "in all the churches of the saints."
(14:33b-36). Recently some scholars have tried to promote strange
doctrines by suggesting that some of our canonical writings are not
genuine, and that other writings such as the Gospel of Thomas are
equally valid "interpretations" of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. I
have studied their arguments, and I can assure you that they are not
worth listening to.
THE APOSTLES’ CREED,
1
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The present form probably did not exist before the sixth century. However it
had a much earlier origin, probably a primitive baptismal formula, derived
from the last chapter of Matthew, “baptizing them in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” (p. 135)
It was known, with the exception of two or three phrases, as early as the
second century to Iraneaus and Tertullian.
Not only did it affirm basic Christian beliefs, and was called upon for
believers to assent to at baptism, but it rejected certain tenets of various
“heresies,” such as the Marcionites (Jesus was but a phantom; flesh is evil,
etc.) and others.
It was clearly an expression of what was taught by the apostles, amended
over time to meet particular challenges as they arose.
THE APOSTLES’ CREED, 2
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“Moreover, in those few words, “Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,” is succinctly
summarized the heart of the Christian Gospel—God Who is Father, Who
once in history revealed Himself in one who was at once God and man and
Who because of that continues to operate in thelives of men through His
Spirit. In this is the uniqueness of Christianity.” (p. 136)
I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
the Creator of heaven and earth,
and in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord:
Who was conceived of the Holy Spirit,
born of the Virgin Mary,
suffered under Pontius Pilate,
was crucified, died, and was buried.
He descended into hell. [See Calvin]
The third day He arose again from the dead.
He ascended into heaven
and sits at the right hand of God the Father Almighty,
whence He shall come to judge the living and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy *catholic church,
the communion of saints,
the forgiveness of sins,
the resurrection of the body,
and life everlasting.
Amen.