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Memory
Introduction to Memory
Memory Models
Memory and The Brain
Process of Encoding Memories
Storage of Memories
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Memory
(continued)
Retrieval: Accessing Memories
The Process of Forgetting
Memory Distortions
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Memory > Introduction to Memory
Introduction to Memory
• Introduction to the Process and Types of Memory
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Memory > Introduction to Memory
Introduction to the Process and Types of Memory
• The three main stages of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Problems
can occur at any of these stages.
• The two main forms of memory storage are short-term and long-term memory.
Short-term memory lasts for a very brief time and can only hold 6–9 pieces of
information. Long-term storage can hold an infinite amount of information and can
last for a very long time.
• Implicit and explicit memories, also called declarative and non-declarative
memories, are two different types of memory. Implicit memories are of sensory
and automatized behaviors, and explicit memories are of information, episodes, or
events.
Stages of Memory
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• Patients who have brain damage are often used to study the neural correlates of
memory. Patient HM helped researchers learn important information about which
areas of the brain are associated with various memory functions.
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Memory > Memory Models
Memory Models
• Sensory Memory
• Working (Short-Term) Memory
• Long-Term Memory
• Detail on Types of Long-Term Memory
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Memory > Memory Models
Sensory Memory
• Memory refers to our ability to recall past experiences. Sensory Memory, Working
Memory and Long Term Memory all serve varying purposes.
• Sensory Memory is divided into two sub-forms: Iconic Memory (relating to visual
input) and Echoic Memory (relating to auditory input).
• At the level of Sensory Memory, no manipulation of the incoming information
occurs, and the input is quickly transferred to the Working Memory.
• There are several theories that explore how information is selected and filtered as
it moves into working memory, including the Filter Theory, Attenuation Theory,
and Late Attention Theory.
Overview of Memory Systems
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Memory > Memory Models
Working (Short-Term) Memory
• Short-term memory acts as a scratch pad for temporary recall of information
being processed. It decays rapidly and has a limited capacity.
• Within short-term memory there are three basic operations: iconic memory, the
ability to hold visual images in mind; acoustic memory, the ability to hold sounds
in mind (this lasts for a longer duration than iconic memory); and working
memory, an active process to hold information while it is waiting to be used.
• Working memory is a type of short-term memory. It consists of a network of
components, including a phonological loop that preserves verbal and auditory
data, a visuospatial scratchpad that preserves visual data, and a central manager
that controls attention to the data.
Overview of memory
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Memory > Memory Models
Long-Term Memory
• In order for information to be retained, it must be processed through the various
stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term.
• Information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory after a brief period
of time.
• Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory is semi-permanent and experiences
very little decay.
Types of Memory
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Memory > Memory Models
Detail on Types of Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory stores memory for an extended period of time, from a few
minutes to several years or even a lifetime.
• Long-term memory can be subdivided into different types based on whether the
information is conscious (explicit) or unconscious (implicit).
• Explicit memory, also known as conscious or declarative memory, involves
memory for facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall.
• Explicit memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, which
concerns facts, and episodic memory, which concerns primarily personal or
autobiographical information.
Types of Long term Memory
• Implicit memory, also known as unconscious or procedural memory, involves the
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development of procedures for completing actions that are practiced over time.
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Memory > Memory and The Brain
Memory and The Brain
• Neural Correlates of Memory Consolidation
• Neural Correlates of Memory Storage
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Memory > Memory and The Brain
Neural Correlates of Memory Consolidation
• The hippocampus is essential for the consolidation of both short-term and longterm memories. Damage to this area of the brain can cause a person to no longer
be able to make new memories and may even effect older memories that have
not been fully consolidated.
• The amygdala has been associated with enhanced retention of memory. Because
of this, it is thought to modulate memory consolidation. The effect is most
pronounced in emotionally charged events.
• The cerebellum is associated with creativity and innovation. It is theorized that all
processes of working memory are adaptively modeled by the cerebellum.
The hippocampus
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Memory > Memory and The Brain
Neural Correlates of Memory Storage
• It is theorized that memories are stored in neural networks in various parts of the
brain associated with different types of memory, including short-term (working)
memory, sensory memory, and long-term memory.
• Memory traces, or engrams, are physical neural changes associated with
memories. Scientists have gained knowledge about these neuronal codes from
studies on neuroplasticity.
• Encoding of episodic memory involves lasting changes in molecular structures,
which alters communication between neurons. Recent functional imaging studies
have detected working-memory signals in the medial temporal lobe and the
prefrontal cortex.
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
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• Both the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex are associated with long- and shortterm memory, suggesting a strong link between these two types of memory.
• The hippocampus is integral in consolidating memories but does not seem to
store memories itself.
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Memory > Process of Encoding Memories
Process of Encoding Memories
• Introduction to Memory Encoding
• The Role of Attention in Memory
• Levels of Processing
• Other Steps
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Memory > Process of Encoding Memories
Introduction to Memory Encoding
• During the process of memory encoding, items are stored in working memory
either for immediate use or to be manipulated in conjunction with other items
previously stored in long-term memory.
• Encoding of memories in the brain occurs in a variety of ways, including
mnemonics, chunking, and state-dependent learning.
• The three primary types of encoding are visual (the process of encoding images
and visual sensory information), acoustic (the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to
implant memories), and semantic (the use of sensory input that has a specific
meaning).
• In comparison to memory encoding, memory recall refers to retrieving previously
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encoded information.
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Memory > Process of Encoding Memories
The Role of Attention in Memory
• Research suggests a close link between working memory and what is known as
"attentional capture," the information a person chooses to pay attention to.
• Attentional capture can happen either explicitly or implicitly.
• Explicit attentional capture occurs when a principle or unattended stimulus draws
attention, leading to awareness of its presence.
• Implicit attentional capture is when a principle or irrelevant stimulus affects
performance on another task, regardless of whether or not subjects are aware of
it.
• Working, or short-term, memory actively holds many pieces of information and
manipulates them.
Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) model of working
memory
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Memory > Process of Encoding Memories
Levels of Processing
• There are three levels of processing for verbal data: structural, phonetic, and
semantic.
• Structural processing examines the structure of a word; phonetic processing
examines how a word sounds; and semantic processing examines the meaning of
a word.
• As a word passes through the levels of processing, we relate it to other
knowledge we may have. This determines whether the word will move from shortterm memory to long-term memory.
Letters
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Memory > Process of Encoding Memories
Other Steps
• Encoding begins with perception, which is the organization, identification, and
interpretation of any sensory information in order to understand it within the
context of a particular environment.
• Encoding is achieved using chemicals and electric impulses within the brain. With
new experiences and sensations, the brain "rewires" itself by creating new
connections to create new memories.
• There are four main types of encoding that can occur within the brain: visual,
elaborative, acoustic, and semantic.
• Visual encoding uses information from the visual senses to create memories,
while acoustic encoding uses sound information to create new memories.
Overview of memory
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• Elaborative encoding uses information that is already known and relates it to the
new information being experienced.
• Semantic encoding is the use of sensory input that has certain meaning or context
to encode and create memories.
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Memory > Storage of Memories
Storage of Memories
• Introduction to Memory Storage
• Network Models of Memory
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Memory > Storage of Memories
Introduction to Memory Storage
• Short-term memory has a limited capacity for storage and can only store
information for a short amount of time.
• The capacity of long-term memory storage is much greater than that of short-term
memory; in theory, long-term memory can hold an infinite amount of information
indefinitely. However, in reality, long-term memory is not permanent.
• In order to explain the recall process, a memory model must identify how an
encoded memory can reside in storage for a prolonged period of time until it is
accessed again.
• The Multi-Trace Distributed Memory model, the Neural Network model, and the
Dual-Store Memory Search model each seek to explain how memories are stored
Overview of memory
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in the brain.
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Memory > Storage of Memories
Network Models of Memory
• Network models theorize that memories are the result of associations among
neurons and neural networks. This concept is known as connectionism.
• The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model posits that neural networks
interact to store memory and that memory is created by modifying the strength of
the connections between neural units. This approach is based on fundamental
principles of technology and mathematics.
• The Neural Network Model also states that connections between neurons create
and store memories. In contrast to the PDP model, this model uses mathematical
principles but focuses more on psychological concepts.
Neural connections
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Memory > Retrieval: Accessing Memories
Retrieval: Accessing Memories
• Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall
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Memory > Retrieval: Accessing Memories
Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall
• Retrieval cues can facilitate recall. Cues are thought to be most effective when
they have a strong, complex link with the information to be recalled.
• Serial recall is another strategy for retrieving information. Memories of events or
items tend to be recalled in the same order in which they were experienced, so by
thinking through a list or series of events, you can boost your recall of successive
items.
• The primacy and recency effects show that items near the beginning and end of a
list or series tend to be remembered most frequently.
• Sometimes cues can interfere with encoding. If new information is learned that is
similar to old information, proactive interference can inhibit encoding new data.
An overview of memory
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Rather than being stored as old, separate information, the old memories can
interfere with the encoding process of the new memories.
• The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs when an individual can almost recall a
word but cannot directly identify it. This is a type of retrieval failure; the memory
cannot be accessed, but certain aspects, such as the first letter or similar words,
can.
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Memory > The Process of Forgetting
The Process of Forgetting
• Types of Forgetting
• Amnesia
• Transience and Encoding Failure
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Memory > The Process of Forgetting
Types of Forgetting
• Proactive and retroactive interference can impact how well we are able to recall a
memory. These conflicting memories assist in causing us to "forget" the memory
we want to recall.
• Not consistently reviewing, or not having to often recall, a memory will lead to
memory decay, which will ultimately result in a person forgetting that memory.
• Memories form around more than just events; they are also influenced by whether
information is important and relevant. This is further influenced by interpretation,
perception, and emotions.
Memory over time
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Memory > The Process of Forgetting
Amnesia
• Anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories; long-term memories
from before the event remain intact. However, memories that were not fully
consolidated from before the event may also be lost.
• Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories from before the onset of
amnesia. A person may be able to encode new memories after the event, and
they are more likely to remember general knowledge rather than specifics.
• Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when, or how previously
learned information was acquired, but the factual knowledge is retained.
• Source confusion is misremembering of the source of a memory. The individual
does not forget the source but rather remembers it inaccurately. An example is
Amnesia
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when an individual claims a memory is from their own experience when it is
actually a story they heard.
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Memory > The Process of Forgetting
Transience and Encoding Failure
• Memory storage is the the retention of information, achieved through the encoding
process.
• Memory is the recall of not only events but also perceptions, interpretations, and
emotions.
• Memories are encoded and remembered based on how a person internalizes
information as perceptions, interpretations, and emotions.
• Transience refers to the general deterioration of a specific memory over time.
Much more can be remembered of recent events than of those further in the past.
Making a Memory
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Memory > Memory Distortions
Memory Distortions
• Memory Distortions and Biases
• Considerations for Eyewitness Testimony
• Repressed Memories
• Strategies for Improving Memory Quality and Duration
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Memory > Memory Distortions
Memory Distortions and Biases
• Information in short-term memory is constantly deteriorating. When information is
transferred to long-term memory for extended storage, details are lost in the
consolidation process.
• Because memories are reconstructed, they are susceptible to being manipulated
with false information. The brain has the tendency to fill in any blanks or
inconsistencies in a memory by making use of schemas, imagination, and
similarities with other memories.
• Much research has shown that the phrasing of questions can alter memories.
Children are particularly suggestible to such leading questions and
misinformation.
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• People can more easily recall a given memory when they are in the same mood
they were in when the memory was formed.
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Memory > Memory Distortions
Considerations for Eyewitness Testimony
• Eyewitness testimony has been considered a credible source in the past, but it
has recently come under attack as increasing evidence shows that memories and
individual perceptions are unreliable, biased, and easily manipulated.
• One factor that influences the accuracy of memory is the duration of the event
being witnessed. Recall is better for events that last longer.
• The time between the perception and recollection of an event can also affect
recollection. The accuracy of eyewitness memory degrades rapidly after initial
encoding; the longer the delay between encoding and recall, the worse recall will
be.
The Forgetting Curve of Memory
• Research has consistently shown that even very subtle changes in the wording of
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a question can influence memory. Questions whose wording might bias the
responder toward one answer over another are referred to as leading questions.
• Age has been shown to impact the accuracy of memory; younger witnesses are
more suggestible and are more easily swayed by leading questions and
misinformation.
• Other factors such as personal biases, poor visibility, and the emotional tone of
the event can influence eyewitness testimony.
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Memory > Memory Distortions
Repressed Memories
• The issue of whether memories can be repressed has been the topic of much
heated debate.
• Evidence in support of repressed memories includes research on how traumatic
memories are encoded. In traumatic memories, there is a narrowed attentional
focus on the emotional aspects of the memory; in contrast, non-traumatic
memories encode a full narrative of the event.
• Some theorize that survivors of childhood sexual abuse may use repression to
cope with the traumatic experience.
• Detractors of the theory of repressed memories claim that for most people, the
difficulty with traumatic memories is their intrusiveness—that people are unable to
Lost-in-the-mall experiment
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forget them despite often wanting to.
• Given how unreliable memory is, some argue that attempting to "recover" a
repressed memory runs the risk of implanting "false memories".
• At this point it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a
true memory from a false one.
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Memory > Memory Distortions
Strategies for Improving Memory Quality and Duration
• One way to improve retention (particularly of non-visual material) is to associate
the information to be remembered with things that can be visualized. Creating
more links to a memory makes it easier to recall.
• Another way to improve memory is through the use of a mnemonic device, such
as ROY G BIV for the colors of the rainbow.
• People are more likely to be able to retrieve a memory if they are in the same
mood as they were in when the memory was first formed.
• Environmental structuring means physically arranging things so that we will bump
into them in time to remember to do them. One example of this approach is pill
Common mnemonics
boxes that are labeled with a day of the week on each compartment.
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• Overlearning refers to practicing material even after the point at which the subject
can demonstrate perfect recall.
• Today it is commonly accepted that one of the functions of sleep and dreams is to
process and optimize memory storage.
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Appendix
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Memory
Key terms
• anterograde amnesia The inability to remember new information since the amnesic episode.
• chunking The splitting of information into smaller pieces to make reading and understanding faster and easier.
• chunking The splitting of concepts into smaller pieces of information to make reading and understanding faster and easier.
• connectionism Any of several fields of psychology that model brain processes in terms of interconnected networks.
• consolidation The act or process of turning short-term memories into more permanent, long-term memories.
• consolidation The act or process of turning short-term memories into more permanent, long-term memories.
• declarative memory The type of long-term memory that stores facts and events; also known as conscious or explicit memory.
• declarative memory The type of long-term memory that stores facts and events; also known as conscious or explicit memory.
• echoic Imitative of a sound; onomatopoeic.
• echoic Imitative of a sound; onomatopoeic.
• encode To convert sensory input into a form able to be processed and deposited in the memory.
• encode To convert sensory input into a form able to be processed and deposited in the memory.
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Memory
• encoding The process of converting information into a construct that can be stored within the brain.
• encoding The process of converting information into a construct that can be stored within the brain.
• encoding The process of converting information into a construct that can be stored within the brain.
• engram A postulated physical or biochemical change in neural tissue that represents a memory; a memory trace.
• explicit Very specific, clear, or detailed.
• eyewitness Someone who sees an event and can report or testify about it.
• glutamate An important neurotransmitter that plays a key role in long-term potentiation and is important for learning and
memory.
• iconic Visually representative.
• implicit Implied indirectly, without being directly expressed.
• leading question A question that suggests the answer or contains the information the examiner is looking for.
• leading question A question that suggests the answer or contains the information the examiner is looking for.
• lobectomy The surgical removal of a lobe from an organ such as the lung or the brain.
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Memory
• long-term potentiation A long-lasting (hours in vitro, weeks to months in vivo) increase, typically in amplitude, of the response of
a postsynaptic neuron to a particular pattern of stimuli from a presynaptic neuron.
• long-term memory Memory in which associations among items are stored indefinitely, as part of the theory of a dual-store
memory model.
• memory The ability of an organism to record information about things or events with the facility of recalling them later at will.
• method of loci A method of memory enhancement that uses visualization to organize and recall information.
• mnemonic Anything (especially something in verbal form) used to help remember something.
• mnemonic Anything, especially a verbal tool, used to help remember something.
• mnemonics Techniques for remembering something more easily.
• neuroplasticity The state or quality of having a brain that adapts to experience through physical changes in connections.
• phonetic Relating to the sounds of spoken language.
• proactive interference When past memories inhibit an individual's full potential to retain new memories.
• procedural memory A type of long-term memory that guides the processes we perform; most frequently resides below the level
of conscious awareness; also known as unconscious or implicit memory.
• pseudomemory A false or otherwise inaccurate memory that has usually been implanted by some form of suggestion. This term
is generally used by people who do not believe that memories can be repressed and later recalled.
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Memory
• repressed memory Also known as recovered memory; a hypothetical concept used to describe a significant memory, usually of
a traumatic nature, that has become unavailable for recall.
• retrieval The cognitive process of bringing stored information into consciousness.
• retrieval The cognitive process of bringing stored information into consciousness.
• retroactive interference When newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned
information.
• retrograde amnesia The loss of memories from the period before the amnesic episode.
• retrograde amnesia The loss of memories from the period leading up to the amnesic episode.
• schema A worldview or representation.
• semantic Reflecting the intended structure and meaning.
• semantic Reflecting intended structure and meaning.
• semantic memory A subcategory of declarative memory; stores general information such as names and facts.
• sensory memory The brief storage (in memory) of information experienced by the senses; typically only lasts up to a few
seconds.
• source confusion The unconscious transference involving the misattribution of the source of a memory.
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Memory
• structure The overall form or organization of something.
• tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon The failure to retrieve a word from memory combined with partial recall and the feeling that
retrieval is imminent.
• trace decay theory The theory that if memories are not reviewed or recalled consistently, they will begin to decay and will
ultimately be forgotten.
• transience The quality of being transient, temporary, brief or fleeting.
• working memory The system that actively holds multiple pieces of information in the mind for execution of verbal and nonverbal
tasks and makes them available for further information processing.
• working memory The system that actively holds multiple pieces of information in the mind for execution of verbal and nonverbal
tasks and makes them available for further information processing.
• working memory The system that actively holds multiple pieces of information in the mind for execution of verbal and nonverbal
tasks and makes them available for further information processing.
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Memory
The Forgetting Curve of Memory
The red line shows that eyewitness memory declines rapidly following initial encoding and flattens out after around 2 days at dramatically reduced level
of accuracy.
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Memory
Overview of memory
Information is received through Sensory Memory, encoded in Short Term Memory/Working Memory, and stored in Long Term Memory. Information can
be retrieved from Long Term Memory for use in working memory.
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Memory
Overview of Memory Systems
This diagram illustrates all the different types of memories, their stages, and their interaction.
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Memory
Letters
The way a word looks is known as structural processing.
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Memory
Memory interference
Both old and new memories can impact how well we are able to recall a memory. This is known as proactive and retroactive interference.
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Memory
The Cerebellum
Vertical cross-section of the human cerebellum, showing folding pattern of the cortex, and interior structures.
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Memory
An overview of memory
It is theorized that memory is only retrieved from the long term memory which contains declarative and implicit memories.
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Memory
Types of Memory
Final overview of all different types of memory and their interactions.
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Memory
Overview of memory
Schematic showing movement of input within memory stages
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Memory
Memory over time
Over time, a memory becomes harder to remember. A memory is freshest at the start, and without repetition, begins to be forgotten.
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Memory
Types of Long term Memory
The two primary types of long term memory.
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Memory
The amygdala
The amygdala is involved with enhancing the consolidation of emotional memories.
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Memory
The hippocampus
The hippocampus is integral in consolidating memories from Short Term to Long Term Memory.
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Memory
Neural connections
As neurons form connections with each other through their many dendrites, they can form complex networks. The Network Model proposes that these
connections are the basis of storing and retrieving memories.
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Memory
Amnesia
There are two main forms of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde. Retrograde prevents recall of information before a brain injury, and anterograde
prevents recall of information after a brain injury.
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Memory
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
While memory is created and stored through out the brain, some regions have been shown to be associated with specific types of memory. The temporal
lobe is important to sensory memory, while the frontal lobe is associated with both short and long term memory.
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Memory
Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) model of working memory
This model illustrates how working memory and attentional capture work together.
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Memory
Phonological Loop
Diagram of the phonological loop process, which consists of two parts: short-term storage and articulacy rehearsal. This is used during acoustic
encoding.
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Memory
Stages of Memory
The three stages of memory- encoding, storage, and retrieval. Problems can occur at any stage of the process.
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Memory
Making a Memory
To form a memory in the brain, information must first be encoded and stored before it can be recalled for later use.
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Memory
Lost-in-the-mall experiment
Some of the early research in memory conformity involved the "Lost in the Mall" technique.
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Memory
Common mnemonics
ROY G BIV is a common memory mnemonic for the colors of the rainbow: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.
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Memory
Overview of memory
Schematic showing movement of input within memory stages
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Memory
Patient HM, despite his dysfunctional memory system, was able
to improve on tasks involving motor skills. He did not, however,
remember practicing these tasks. HM displayed the ability to form
new memories of what type?
A) Explicit memory
B) Implicit memory
C) Declarative memory
D) Semantic memory
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Memory
Patient HM, despite his dysfunctional memory system, was able
to improve on tasks involving motor skills. He did not, however,
remember practicing these tasks. HM displayed the ability to form
new memories of what type?
A) Explicit memory
B) Implicit memory
C) Declarative memory
D) Semantic memory
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Memory
During which of the following stages of memory can problems
arise that block or prevent successful memory usage?
A) Storing.
B) Encoding.
C) All of these.
D) Retrieving.
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Memory
During which of the following stages of memory can problems
arise that block or prevent successful memory usage?
A) Storing.
B) Encoding.
C) All of these.
D) Retrieving.
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Memory
How is sensory memory different from long-term memory?
A) Sensory memory handles medium-term memory storage. Long-term
memory is theoretically infinite.
B) Sensory memory stores traumatic inputs while long-term memory
stores other, general inputs.
C) None of these.
D) Sensory memory lasts for only a few milliseconds. Long-term memory
is theoretically infinite.
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Memory
How is sensory memory different from long-term memory?
A) Sensory memory handles medium-term memory storage. Long-term
memory is theoretically infinite.
B) Sensory memory stores traumatic inputs while long-term memory
stores other, general inputs.
C) None of these.
D) Sensory memory lasts for only a few milliseconds. Long-term memory
is theoretically infinite.
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Memory
What the relationship between short-term memory and working
memory?
A) Working memory is a part of long-term memory which follows storage
of input in short-term memory.
B) Working memory is one of the functional stages within short-term
memory.
C) Short-term memory is an operational stage within Working memory.
D) Short-term memory has no known relationship to working memory.
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Memory
What the relationship between short-term memory and working
memory?
A) Working memory is a part of long-term memory which follows storage
of input in short-term memory.
B) Working memory is one of the functional stages within short-term
memory.
C) Short-term memory is an operational stage within Working memory.
D) Short-term memory has no known relationship to working memory.
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Memory
Which type of memory is necessary for remembering your ATM
pin number?
A) Long-term memory
B) Short-term memory
C) Working memory
D) Metamemory
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Memory
Which type of memory is necessary for remembering your ATM
pin number?
A) Long-term memory
B) Short-term memory
C) Working memory
D) Metamemory
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Memory
Which of the following could explain why a previously
remembered memory would be forgotten five years later?
A) The hippocampus is full.
B) The information was not properly encoded.
C) The memory was not stored.
D) There is a problem with retrieval.
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Memory
Which of the following could explain why a previously
remembered memory would be forgotten five years later?
A) The hippocampus is full.
B) The information was not properly encoded.
C) The memory was not stored.
D) There is a problem with retrieval.
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Memory
What is a major difference between procedural memory and
declarative memory?
A) Procedural memory stores knowledge of motor skills; declarative
memory stores abstract facts.
B) Procedural memory and declarative memory both perform comparable
functions.
C) Procedural memory stores abstract facts; declarative memory stores
knowledge of motor skills.
D) None of the above.
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Memory
What is a major difference between procedural memory and
declarative memory?
A) Procedural memory stores knowledge of motor skills; declarative
memory stores abstract facts.
B) Procedural memory and declarative memory both perform comparable
functions.
C) Procedural memory stores abstract facts; declarative memory stores
knowledge of motor skills.
D) None of the above.
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Memory
Dan has experienced damage to his hippocampus. He will find
that:
A) he will be able to form new memories, but not learn a new skill.
B) he won't be able to form new memories or learn new skills.
C) he will be able to form new memories and learn new skills.
D) he will be able to learn a new skill, but not form new memories.
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Memory
Dan has experienced damage to his hippocampus. He will find
that:
A) he will be able to form new memories, but not learn a new skill.
B) he won't be able to form new memories or learn new skills.
C) he will be able to form new memories and learn new skills.
D) he will be able to learn a new skill, but not form new memories.
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Memory
If you witness a house in your neighborhood burning down, how
likely is it the amygdala was involved in the formation of that
memory?
A) Very likely, because it was not an emotional scene.
B) Very likely, because it was an emotionally-arousing scene.
C) Not likely, because it was an emotionally-arousing scene.
D) Not likely, because it was not an emotional scene.
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Memory
If you witness a house in your neighborhood burning down, how
likely is it the amygdala was involved in the formation of that
memory?
A) Very likely, because it was not an emotional scene.
B) Very likely, because it was an emotionally-arousing scene.
C) Not likely, because it was an emotionally-arousing scene.
D) Not likely, because it was not an emotional scene.
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Memory
The hippocampus has been found to be most important for the
formation of _______.
A) declarative memories
B) emotional memories
C) reinforced memories
D) non-declarative memories
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Memory
The hippocampus has been found to be most important for the
formation of _______.
A) declarative memories
B) emotional memories
C) reinforced memories
D) non-declarative memories
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Memory
Which of the following is true of the physical location of memory?
A) Memory is likely stored in neural networks all throughout the brain.
B) All of these answers
C) The frontal and temporal lobes have been strongly associated with the
storage of memory.
D) The physical location of memory is not fully understood.
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Memory
Which of the following is true of the physical location of memory?
A) Memory is likely stored in neural networks all throughout the brain.
B) All of these answers
C) The frontal and temporal lobes have been strongly associated with the
storage of memory.
D) The physical location of memory is not fully understood.
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Memory
Emma is learning German. On her weekly quiz, she sees a word
that she remembers the meaning of but does not remember how
to pronounce. This indicates she has most likely performed which
types of encoding?
A) Semantic and visual
B) Semantic and acoustic
C) Acoustic and visual
D) Semantic only
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Memory
Emma is learning German. On her weekly quiz, she sees a word
that she remembers the meaning of but does not remember how
to pronounce. This indicates she has most likely performed which
types of encoding?
A) Semantic and visual
B) Semantic and acoustic
C) Acoustic and visual
D) Semantic only
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Memory
Martin is trying to remember his grocery list. He knows that
bananas were first on the list, and milk was last, but he's a bit
fuzzy on what came in between. Which recall effects is he
experiencing?
A) Primacy, recency
B) Primacy, spacing
C) Recency, spacing
D) Recency, testing
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Memory
Martin is trying to remember his grocery list. He knows that
bananas were first on the list, and milk was last, but he's a bit
fuzzy on what came in between. Which recall effects is he
experiencing?
A) Primacy, recency
B) Primacy, spacing
C) Recency, spacing
D) Recency, testing
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Memory
Which of the following refers to the process by which an
unattended stimulus draws attention, leading to awareness of its
presence?
A) Implicit attentional capture
B) Explicit attentional capture
C) Working memory
D) Chunking
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Memory
Which of the following refers to the process by which an
unattended stimulus draws attention, leading to awareness of its
presence?
A) Implicit attentional capture
B) Explicit attentional capture
C) Working memory
D) Chunking
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Memory
The meaning we apply to a word is known as what type of
processing?
A) Phonetic
B) Structural
C) Semantic
D) Verbal
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Memory
The meaning we apply to a word is known as what type of
processing?
A) Phonetic
B) Structural
C) Semantic
D) Verbal
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Memory
The type of encoding that relates new information to previously
learned information is known as what?
A) Semantic
B) Visual
C) Acoustic
D) Elaborative
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Memory
The type of encoding that relates new information to previously
learned information is known as what?
A) Semantic
B) Visual
C) Acoustic
D) Elaborative
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Memory
What is a key limitation of the Multi-Trace Distributed Memory
Model?
A) The model suggests that the memory matrix has a clear and finite
capacity.
B) Computational searches for specific memories among the millions of
traces in the memory matrix seems implausible.
C) The model suggests that items within Short-Term memory store are
recalled first, but does not explain why.
D) The notions of Short-Term and Long-Term stores within memory have
not been proven.
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Memory
What is a key limitation of the Multi-Trace Distributed Memory
Model?
A) The model suggests that the memory matrix has a clear and finite
capacity.
B) Computational searches for specific memories among the millions of
traces in the memory matrix seems implausible.
C) The model suggests that items within Short-Term memory store are
recalled first, but does not explain why.
D) The notions of Short-Term and Long-Term stores within memory have
not been proven.
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Memory
Which of the following is true of the Network Model of Memory?
A) Neural networks are responsible for encoding memories; later these
memories are stored elsewhere.
B) Connections between information units and changes to these
connections are the basis of memory.
C) The Network Model is a purely psychological creation used to store
memory.
D) Networks are only used to store memory.
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Memory
Which of the following is true of the Network Model of Memory?
A) Neural networks are responsible for encoding memories; later these
memories are stored elsewhere.
B) Connections between information units and changes to these
connections are the basis of memory.
C) The Network Model is a purely psychological creation used to store
memory.
D) Networks are only used to store memory.
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Memory
Dorothy can only remember the names of her seven children
when she recites them in the order that they were born. This is an
example of ______________.
A) Cued recall
B) Free recall
C) Serial recall
D) Visual recall
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Memory
Dorothy can only remember the names of her seven children
when she recites them in the order that they were born. This is an
example of ______________.
A) Cued recall
B) Free recall
C) Serial recall
D) Visual recall
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Memory
The "tip of the tongue effect" involves which type of memory
failure?
A) A recognition failure
B) A retrieval failure
C) An encoding failure
D) A relearning failure
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Memory
The "tip of the tongue effect" involves which type of memory
failure?
A) A recognition failure
B) A retrieval failure
C) An encoding failure
D) A relearning failure
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Memory
Seventy-five-year-old William has not thought about his high
school classmates in many years, and finds, when he looks at his
class picture, that he cannot remember most of the names. What
is a possible reason for this?
A) All of these
B) Proactive interference
C) Memory decay
D) Retroactive interference
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Memory
Seventy-five-year-old William has not thought about his high
school classmates in many years, and finds, when he looks at his
class picture, that he cannot remember most of the names. What
is a possible reason for this?
A) All of these
B) Proactive interference
C) Memory decay
D) Retroactive interference
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Memory
Amanda has heard her husband tell the same story about his
childhood so many times, she eventually starts to attribute it to her
own childhood. This is an example of _________.
A) Source amnesia
B) Hypnotic suggestion
C) Source confusion
D) Memory distrust
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Memory
Amanda has heard her husband tell the same story about his
childhood so many times, she eventually starts to attribute it to her
own childhood. This is an example of _________.
A) Source amnesia
B) Hypnotic suggestion
C) Source confusion
D) Memory distrust
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Memory
Which of the following is true regarding retrograde amnesia?
A) A person with retrograde amnesia will be unable to recall memories
after the event.
B) A person with retrograde amnesia will be able to encode new
memories after the event.
C) A person with retrograde amnesia will be unable to create new
memories.
D) Retrograde amnesia typically results from damage to the
hippocampus.
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Memory
Which of the following is true regarding retrograde amnesia?
A) A person with retrograde amnesia will be unable to recall memories
after the event.
B) A person with retrograde amnesia will be able to encode new
memories after the event.
C) A person with retrograde amnesia will be unable to create new
memories.
D) Retrograde amnesia typically results from damage to the
hippocampus.
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Memory
You have spent hours learning your calculus lesson. The best way
to ensure you remember all that you've learned would be to:
A) Decrease serotonin levels to help with encoding.
B) Try electroconvulsive therapy to trigger encoded memories.
C) Make relevant associations between the info and things you already
know. Also, get some sleep.
D) Decrease glutamate levels so that the information is more accessible
in long-term memory.
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Memory
You have spent hours learning your calculus lesson. The best way
to ensure you remember all that you've learned would be to:
A) Decrease serotonin levels to help with encoding.
B) Try electroconvulsive therapy to trigger encoded memories.
C) Make relevant associations between the info and things you already
know. Also, get some sleep.
D) Decrease glutamate levels so that the information is more accessible
in long-term memory.
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Memory
According to mood-state dependent retrieval, if you are in a
nervous mood you are more likely to retrieve memories:
A) that were encoded at a time when you were also nervous.
B) of other times you were nervous.
C) that were encoded at a time when you were calm.
D) of times when you did something embarrassing.
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Memory
According to mood-state dependent retrieval, if you are in a
nervous mood you are more likely to retrieve memories:
A) that were encoded at a time when you were also nervous.
B) of other times you were nervous.
C) that were encoded at a time when you were calm.
D) of times when you did something embarrassing.
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Memory
What would be the most effective way to determine a child's true
memory of an event?
A) None of these answers.
B) Ask leading questions.
C) Ask the child to recall the memory multiple times over a series of
intervals.
D) Make suggestive comments.
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Memory
What would be the most effective way to determine a child's true
memory of an event?
A) None of these answers.
B) Ask leading questions.
C) Ask the child to recall the memory multiple times over a series of
intervals.
D) Make suggestive comments.
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Memory
Which of the following is the LEAST likely to interfere with
accurate memory recall?
A) The time of day the event occurred.
B) The duration between witnessing and recalling the event.
C) The phrasing of questions about the memory.
D) The day of the week the event occurred
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Memory
Which of the following is the LEAST likely to interfere with
accurate memory recall?
A) The time of day the event occurred.
B) The duration between witnessing and recalling the event.
C) The phrasing of questions about the memory.
D) The day of the week the event occurred
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Memory
Which of the following is a possible reason for differences found in
traumatic and nontraumatic memories?
A) Traumatic and nontraumatic memories may be encoded differently.
B) Nontraumatic memories are often repressed.
C) Traumatic memories are unreliable.
D) All of these answers.
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Memory
Which of the following is a possible reason for differences found in
traumatic and nontraumatic memories?
A) Traumatic and nontraumatic memories may be encoded differently.
B) Nontraumatic memories are often repressed.
C) Traumatic memories are unreliable.
D) All of these answers.
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Memory
Which of the following is a good strategy for memorization?
A) Associating important information with visual images.
B) Rote memorization.
C) Playing an audio recording of information after you fall asleep.
D) Cramming for an exam for ten hours straight the day before an exam.
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Memory
Which of the following is a good strategy for memorization?
A) Associating important information with visual images.
B) Rote memorization.
C) Playing an audio recording of information after you fall asleep.
D) Cramming for an exam for ten hours straight the day before an exam.
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Memory
Attribution
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Memory
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• Wiktionary. "chunking." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chunking
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Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience/Memory#Hippocampus
Memory
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• Wiktionary. "semantic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/semantic
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• Wiktionary. "explicit." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/explicit
• Wiktionary. "implicit." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/implicit
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Memory
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//psychology/definition/working-memory--2
• http://www.physpharm.fmd.uwo.ca/undergrad/sensesweb/. CC BY-SA
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/SL_Psychology/Memory#Levels_of_Processing
• Wiktionary. "phonetic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetic
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• Wikipedia. "Perception." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception
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Memory
• Saylor. CC BY-SA http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Cognitive-Psychology-and-CognitiveNeuroscience.pdf
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Memory
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ol
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hypnosis/Chapters/Memory#Memory_vs_Imagination
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• Saylor. CC BY-SA http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Motivation-and-Emotion.pdf
Memory
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• Saylor. CC BY http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH07.pdf
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Memory
• Wikibooks. "Hypnosis/Chapters/Memory." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hypnosis/Chapters/Memory#Memory
• Wiktionary. "mnemonic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mnemonic
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