Digestive System
 The digestive system is the system which ingests food,
and uses physical and chemical means to break down
the food, absorb the nutrients, and excrete waste
products.
So THAT’S what it is!
Functions (food passes)
 Mouth
 As food is ingested, digestion begins immediately with
chewing
 Enzymes in the saliva begin to break down starches into
smaller-sized molecules
 Pharynx
 The pharynx uses a series of muscles to constrict and
push food to the esophagus
 Helps prevent swallowing of air
Functions (food passes)
 Esophagus
 The food is soon swallowed and enters the esophagus.
 The tube runs from the mouth and down to the
stomach.
 By using peristalsis, or rhythmic muscle movements, it
forces food down into the stomach.
Functions (food passes)
 Stomach
 Contains gastric acid
 Churns food and is mixed with a stomach acid called
chyme
 Contains 3 sections: fundus, corpus, antrum
 Contains a layer of mucous so it doesn’t digest itself
 Many layers of muscle to grind and pack-down food for
transport in the rest of the digestive system
Small intestine? It’s
not THAT small!
Functions (food passes)
 Small intestine (absorbs majority of nutrients)
 Duodenum (1st part)

Adds bile from gallbladder (digestive enzyme which breaks
down fats)
 Jejunum (2nd part)

Absorbs carbohydrates, proteins, and vitamins
 Ileum (3rd part)

Absorbs fat and fat-soluble vitamins
 Many digestive enzymes added throughout the small
intestine
Functions (food passes)
 Large intestine (packs waste and removes water)
 Cecum (vestigial in humans)

Digests plants
 Taeniae coli

Three bands of muscle
My cecum
pouch still
functions!
 Haustra

Gives the colon it’s “segmented” appearance, pushes waste
along
 Epiploic appendages

Small pouches of fat sitting on the colon/rectum
Functions (food passes)
 Large intestine (cont)
 Transverse colon
 Ascending colon
 Descending colon
Functions (food passes)
 Rectum
 Where fecal matter is contained until it is excreted
 Lower part of the large intestine
 Anus
 Final part of digestive system
 Contains two sphincters

Internal, external
(Cigarette) Butt

Functions (food does not pass)
 Salivary glands
 Secrete fluid containing water, electrolytes, mucous, and
enzymes
 Three major pairs of salivary glands



Parotid glands- produce watery secretion
Submaxillary glands- produce mucous secretion
Sublingual glands- secret more saliva (predominantly
mucous)
 Serous Cells (watery fluid saliva)
 Mucous cells (mucous-rich saliva)
Functions (food does not pass)
 Liver (accessory organ)
 Makes bile (breaks down fats)
 Removes toxins from blood
 Stores vitamins
 Pancreas (accessory organ)
 Makes enzymes to break down food






Trypsin (breaks down proteins)
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
Amylase
Phospholipase
Nucleases
Accessory
organs are
STILL
important!
Functions (food does not pass)
 Gallbladder
 Located by duodenum (on small intestine)
 Stores bile (made from liver)
 Releases the bile into the duodenum for digesting fats
 Sphincters
 Allow food to pass into the stomach
 Allow waste to exit the anus
Essential? Heck yes!
 Why is digestion of large food molecules essential?
 The foods we eat contain large compounds, and must be
broken-down in order for us to use them
 Molecules must be small enough to fit through the walls
of a cell, in order to be absorbed as nutrients and used to
their full capacity.
Enzymes?
 Bile
 Breaks down fats (made by liver; stored in gallbladder)
 Trypsin
 Breaks down proteins (made by pancreas)
 Amylose
 Breaks down starches, found in saliva
 These speed-up the process of digestion so that the
nutrients may be absorbed quicker, and then used in
other systems
Physical v. Chemical
 Physical digestion
 The act of chewing, swallowing
 Usage of muscles
 Grinding in stomach
 Chemical digestion
 The addition of


Acids
Enzymes
Carbohydrate Digestion
 Carbohydrates
 Digestion begins in mouth with salivary glands

Polysaccharides broken down into disaccharides
monosaccharides
 Then in the small intestine, enzymes are used to break
down the disaccharides and monosaccharides



Maltase
Lactase
Sucrase
Proteins
 Protein digestion begins in the stomach
 The addition of trypsin (made by pancreas) breaks down
the proteins into amino acids
 They are then absorbed by the duodenum/jejunum
(small intestine) to then be used
Lipids
 Digestion begins mainly in stomach
 Stomach churns to separate fats
 Glycerols are broken down into fatty acids
 Lipase and phospholipase are used in the small intestine
Digestive Disorders
 Food poisoning
 Caused by eating foods containing bacteria (salmonella, ecoli, listeria, etc)
 Symptoms




Diarrhea
Cramps
Nausea
Fever
 Prevalence- depends on what you eat!
 Treatment includes:
 Letting it run its course
 Getting medication if necessary
Digestive Disordres
 Crohn’s Disease
 It is an unusual reaction in the intestines

Kills useful/harmless bacteria in intestines as if it were foreign
 Symptoms
 Abdominal pain
 Diarrhea
 Weight loss
 Usually genetic/mutation/runs in families
 Treatment includes:
 Antibiotics
 Other medications available
Digestive System
 References:

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




http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/digestive+system
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/digestive/
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/455238/pharynx
http://enel.ucalgary.ca/People/Mintchev/stomach.htm
http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/small-intestine-function-anatomy-parts-problems.html
http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-Does-the-Large-Intestine-Do.aspx
http://www.cchs.net/health/health-info/docs/1600/1699.asp?index=7041
http://biology.about.com/library/organs/blpathodigest3.htm
http://krupp.wcc.hawaii.edu/BIOL100L/powerpoint/digestion.pdf
http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/crohns/index.aspx#causes
Circulatory System
 The circulatory system is the system that circulates
blood throughout the body, transporting nutrients,
hormones, fights diseases, controls body pH levels and
temperature.
Functions
 Arteries
 Blood vessels
 Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (excluding
pulmonary and umbilical arteries
 Outside is tough, inside is smooth
 Blood should flow easily with minimal obstacles
 Has 3 layers; thicker walls
Functions
Yay for Oxygen!

 Capillaries
 Very thin blood vessels
 Receive oxygen-rich blood to transport
 Exchange oxygen-ridden blood with carbon dioxide
ridden-blood
 Flow in “single file”
 “waste blood” is carried back to the heart
 Appear like a “web”
 Do not run parallel
Functions
 Veins
 Carry waste blood back to lungs and heart
 Not as tough as arteries
 Veins use valves to help blood flow in one direction
 Blood flows against the force of gravity
 Has 3 layers; thinner walls
Blood Route
 Oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium (carried
by pulmonary veins)
 From the left atrium, blood flows into the left
atrioventricular valve, and then into the left ventricle
 Blood is then forced into the aorta, the atrioventricular
valve closes to stop backflow of blood back into the
atrium
 The aorta is then closed off from the left ventricle by
the aortic semilunar valve
Blood Route (cont)
 Other arteries branch off the aorta, and carry oxygen-
rich blood throughout the body
 The systematic circulation brings blood to the neck
and head and to the rest of the body
 Systemic circulation gives oxygen to body parts and
received carbon dioxide
 Blood is then returned to the heart
Blood Composition
 Red blood cells (ethrocytes)
 Disc-shaped
 make up 99% of the cells in the blood
 Hemoglobin molecules
 Large surface area- easier release of oxygen and better
absorption
Blood Composition
 White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
 Used for defense in the immune system
 Clean up dead cells and debris
 Five classes:





Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Basophil
Monocyte
Lymphocytes
 Fights infections,
 Helps determine infections
Blood Composition
 Plasma and platelets
 Platelets go to the injury site
 Plasma contains dissolved proteins
 Both play a role in blood plotting
 Puss
Erythrocytes
 Red blood cell
 Contains hemoglobin, carrys oxygen
 They are biconcave in shape, thus increasing the cell’s surface
area

Makes facilitated diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide easier
 The shape is kept with the cell’s unique cytoskeleton
composed of proteins
 They are very flexible and can change shape in capillaries

Makes transport of cells easier
Open or closed? That is the question.
 Closed circulatory system
 This is when blood travels in veins


Dogs
Rats
 Open circulatory system
 This is when the blood ‘sloshes’ around and ‘bathes’ the
organs


Clams
Earthworms
One-loop circulatory
 Fish!
 One-chamber heart
 Blood travels in a single-loop around the body
 The oxygenated blood goes from the gills, then to the
body parts.
 Deoxygenated blood goes from the body parts, into the
sinus venosus, to the atrium, into the heart, and then to
the gills again
Two-loop circulatory
 Frogs! Amphibians! Oh my!
 Two-chamber heart
 Blood travels in two loops around the body
 The oxygenated blood travels from the lungs and goes to
the left atrium, then to the ventricle, and then to the
conus ateriosus, and heads to the body organs
 The deoxygenated blood leaves the body, goes to the
sinus venosus, then to the right atrium, and to the
ventricle, and finally the conus ateriosus
 The ventricle has a dividing wall so the oxygenated
blood and deoxygenated blood don’t mix
Four chamber heart!
 More efficient!
 In mammals and birds
 High/low oxygen blood kept separate by the complete
septum in the ventricle
 Veins return the blood to the heart, arteries carry it away
 Pulmonary blood vessels carry blood to and from lungs
Cardiovascular Disorders
 Coronary Heart Disease
 Plaque builds-up inside of the coronary arteries. The oxygenrich blood cannot reach your heart muscle as easily if these
are clogged.
 Symptoms:



Blood clots, heart attack
Blocked arteries
Pain/discomfort in chest/shoulders
 Most common form of heart disease, #1 killer of men and
women
 Can be fixed through bypass surgery
 Some medications available
Cardiovascular Disorders
 Cerebrovascular Disease
 Limited/no blood flow to brain
 Caused by atherosclerosis
 Symptoms:



Stroke
Dementia
Transient ischemic attacks
 Common in those with atherosclerosis
 Plaque build-up
 Some medications available, some surgeries
Circulatory System
 References


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

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
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
Prior zoology knowledge
http://www.health-massagers.co.uk/gbu0-display/art.html
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/human_heart.html
http://simscience.org/membranes/advanced/essay/blood_comp_and_func1.html
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3309
http://www.biology-resources.com/drawing-fish-circulatory-system.html
http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/human_online/cardio_sys/circulatory_system.htm
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/cad/
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/184601.php
Respiratory System
 The respiratory system is the system that performs gas
exchange (the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
transporting it to and from cells via the multitude of
respiratory organs).
Functions
Alveoli
Birthday
Party!

 Alveoli
 Primary gas exchange unit
 Attached to branches of bronchial passages
 Inflates with inhalation
 Deflates with exhalation

TINY BALLOONS!
 Covered in mucous tissue/fluid
 Great surface tension (like a balloon!)
 Allows for sufficient gas exchange
Functions
 CO2 and O2 transportation
 Simple diffusion


O2 diffuses from the alveoli and then into the blood
CO2 goes from the blood and into the alveoli
 Diffusion- concentration gradient


The pressure of the O2 must be higher in the alveoli than in
the blood
CO2 in the alveoli need to be kept at a lower pressure that in
the blood
Functions
 Pathway of O2 to RBC
 Nose/mouth

Filters air as it enters
 Nasypharynx

Allows air to pass
 Oropharynx/Laryngopharynx

Passage for air (and food!)
 Larynx

Connects the laryngopharynx to the trachea
Functions
 Pathway of O2 to RBC (cont)
 Trachea


Passage for air to reach the bronchi
Filters the air, use cilia on the walls to remove foreign
molecules and send them to the mouth
 Primary bronchi


Branches both left and right from the trachea
Connects to secondary bronchi
 Secondary bronchi

Passageway for air to each lobe of the lungs and joins to the
tertiary bronchi (three for right lung, two for left lung)
Functions
 Pathway of O2 to RBC (cont)
 Tertiary bronchi

Passageway for the air to get to the bronchioles
 Bronchioles
 These branch into smaller tubes until they become terminal
bronchioles
 Terminal bronchioles
 Continue to divide (wow!) into microscopic branches called
the respiratory bronchioles
 Respiratory bronchioles
 Continue division into alveolar ductsM
Functions
 Pathway of O2 to RBC (cont)
 Alveolar ducts

Deliver the air to the alveoli
 Alveoli

The place of exchange of O2 and the bloodstream
Functions
 Inhaling
 Diaphragm


Located below the lungs
Dome-shaped muscle
 Diaphragm contracts and moves downward
 Exhaling
 Diaphragm relaxes up
 Allows lungs to empty the air

Functions depends on air pressure (high pressure=difficult to
breathe, health, and the amount of O2 present
Respiratory Disorders
 Asthma
 Disorder causing lungs/bronchial tubes to narrow, causing
difficulty breathing
 Symptoms: induced by allergies, exercise, etc.
 Quite common; usually runs in families.
 Also common if the person has a preexisting disorder
 Treatment: medication, inhalers
Respiratory Disorders
 COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
 Causes difficulty breathing


Chronic bronchitis- involved long-term cough with mucous
Emphysema- involves destruction of lungs over time
 Caused by smoking/exposure to gases
 Happens to people who smoke, but not all
 No cure is available, but there is medication available,
and therapy (O2 and steroidal injections)
Respiratory System
 References
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
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ptens2.html
http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301notes6.htm
http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/oxygen.htm
http://www.authentic-breathing.com/how_the_diaphragm_works.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001153/
Immune System
 System in which protects the body’s organs from
invasive organisms and parasitic involvements
Functions
 Bone Marrow
 All cells in the immune system are formed here
 Hematopoiesis- makes bone marrow
 Stem cells develop into different body cells
 Produces:





B cells
Granulocytes
Killer cells
Immature thymocytes
Red blood cells and platelets
Functions
 Thymus gland
 Site for the production of lymphocytes
 Gland is located in the upper-chest area
 Produces majority of lymphocytes during childhood
 Produces mature T cells
Functions
 Spleen
 Composed of:


T cells, B cells, natural killer cells
Macrophages, dendritic cells and RBC’s
 Immunologic filter of blood, traps foreign materials
 Spleen forms the site for old RBC destruction
Functions
 Lymph Nodes
 Filter interstitial fluid between cells
 Made up of tissues


B cells, T cells
Macrophages dendritic cells
 Filters out antigens before letting the lymph circulate
Functions
 Adenoids
 Back of the nasal cavity
 Spongy tissue
 Stops bacteria and infections from infecting the body
 Traps the bacteria and viruses using antibodies
 Tonsils
 Two glands- tissue in back of the mouth
 Defends against infections/kills bacteria
Functions
 Pathogens
 Germ

Recognized by the killer cells and killer T cells
 Antigens
 Substance that causes your body to make antibodies
 Antibodies
 Made in response to an infectious organism
 Produced naturally to kill foreign bacteria/cells/viruses
Functions
 Innate v Acquired
 Innate


Immunity that is natural, and is not formed due to an antigen
Ex- infection/vaccination
 Acquired


Acquired by infection or vaccination
Ex- infection immunity
Functions
 Active v Passive
 Active Immunity


Production of antibodies against an infection
Chicken pox/polio vaccination
 Passive Immunity



Transfer of antibodies that were made by another person
Passive immunity diminishes over a short time
Flu shot
Functions
 Humoral Immunity v Cell-Mediated Immunity
 Humoral Immunity



An acquired immunity
Role of circulating antibodies is still existent
Ex- interferon, causes fever
 Cell-Mediated Immunity
 An acquired immunity
 When T cells are predominant
 Ex- Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity, test for tuberculin
 Both immunities differ:
 Different systems and cells play a role in each
Functions
 B v T lymphocytes
 B lymphocytes


Binds soluble antigens and engulfs the molecules
Antigens are digested into fragments
 T lymphocytes


Two types (alpha/beta and gamma/delta)
Binds bimolecular complexes on the surfacing of other cells
Functions
 Antibiotics n’ bacteria n’ viruses
 Antibiotics


Help fight bacteria
Bacteria are easier to kill, considering they live on their own
 Viruses infect body cells, thus more difficult to kill and
the great majority are immune to antibiotics
Immune System Disorders
 Cattleman’s disease
 Affects lymph nodes and other immune system cells
 Overgrowth of lymphatic cells
 Symptoms: lumps, weight loss, anemia, enlarged
liver/spleen
 Very rare
 Treatment: removal of lymph nodes
Immune System Disorders
 HIV/AIDS
 STD- potentially life-threatening; spread through bodily
fluids (blood, breast milk, etc)
 Symptoms: fever, sore throat, soreness, joint pain,
swollen glands, night sweats
 Very common in Africa and Hati, and the US
 Treatment: no known cure, but some medications can
slow the process of HIV before it becomes AIDS
Immune System
 References

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Prior zoology knowledge
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/organs-of-the-immune-system.html
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/microbes/antbod.html
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26304
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26309
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2130
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=10091
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/humoral+immunity
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/B_and_Tcells.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/castleman-disease/DS01000
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005
Excretory System
 The excretory system is the system in which removes
excess/unnecessary/dangerous materials to help
maintain homeostasis, osmoregulation, and whatnot.
(removal of N2 waste)
Functions
 Nitrogen waste
 Ammonia


Most toxic
Needs LOTS of water to dilute, excreted by mainly fish and marine
life of all sorts
 Urea
 Second most toxic
 Needs water to dilute, excreted by humans, mammals, most
creatures
 Uric acid
 Least toxic
 Needs the least water to dilute, excreted by desert life (minimal
water available)
Functions
 Nephron
 Filtration




Occurs in renal corpuscles
Blood is cleansed and is filtered
Consists of water, excess salts, glucose, and urea
Eliminates toxic ammonia which formed in the liver thanks to
amino acids
Functions
 Nephron
 Reabsorption




The movement of substances out of the renal tubules
Substances include:
 Water, glucose, other nutrients
Glucose is reabsorbed back into the blood, and is then actively
transported
Some sodium ions are partially reabsorbed back from the
renal tubules
Functions
 Secretion
 Process by which substances move into collecting
tubules from the blood
 Secretion happens via an active transport mechanism or
diffusion across a membrane
Functions
 Excretion
 Process of excreting the waste



Balances amount of ions in body
Osmoregulation
Removes nitrogen waste
Excretory System Disorders
 Cystitis
 Inflammation of the bladder; caused by bacterial
infection
 Symptoms: burning sensation when urinating,
discomfort, hematuria, low-grade fever
 Occurs when hard infections happen
 Treatment: antibiotics
Excretory System Disorders
 Kidney Stones
 Small, hard deposits inside of the kidneys

Made of miner and acid salts
 Symptoms: pain in side/back, pink urine, nausea, fever
and chills
 Fairly common in occurrence
 Treatment: Pain killers, and drinking water: most stones
can be passed
Excretory System
 References:





Prior zoology knowledge
http://www.nsbri.org/humanphysspace/focus4/ep-urine.html
http://www.biology-questions-and-answers.com/the-excretory-system.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/kidney-stones/DS00282
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cystitis/DS00285
Endocrine System
 This is the system in which secrets hormones into the
bloodstream via chemical ducts
Functions
 Negative feedback
 Negative feedback causes a decrease in the deviation of a
value, and helps with maintaining homeostasis

Blood calcium levels Parathyroid gland- regulates blood calcium
 Calcium decreases, the parathyroid hormone stimulates the
release of calcium from the bones
Type I Diabetes
 Type 2- juvenile onset diabetes
 Occurs before age 20
 Happens to those who are thin
 When pancreas is destroyed by autoantibodies
 These people need to inject insulin or use an insulin
pump
Type II Diabetes
 Type 2- adult onset
 Usually happens after age 35
 Caused by a complicated medical condition: insulin
resistance
 Use diet and exercise, and sometimes oral meds
 It’s associated with heart disease
 Needs cholesterol and blood pressure regulation
Endocrine System
 References:


http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/endo_sys_fin.html
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/DiabetesOverview/story?id=3843306#.T0GWd3krwwQ
Reproductive System
 The reproductive system is the system in which works
to produce offspring, or reproduce
Functions
 Sexual reproduction
 Produce offspring by combining genetic material from
two parents
 Asexual reproduction
 Produce offspring using genetic material from only one
parent

Ex- planaria worms, some starfish, yeast
Functions
 Spermatogenesis
 Includes nuclear condensation, formation of acrosomal
cap, and tail

Acrosome is from the Golgi apparatus
 Happens with meiosis


All sperm are genetically different
Starts from division of one cell, goes through the cycle
 Primary spermatocyte divides into two cells
 Secondary spermatocytes divide into two cells, thus producing
4 sperm cells
Functions
 Oogenesis
 Primary oocyte



The nucleus breaks down
After the division, the two daughter cells in telophase don’t
contain much cytoplasm
The other cell has almost all of the cytoplasm
 The three smaller cells are polar bodies, and will die
Functions
 Menstrual v Estrous cycles
 Menstrual cycle normally happens monthly; it is when
conception does not occur, and the uterus lining needs
to be released
 Estrous cycle is what happens in dogs and horses, it is
the time period in which they are ovulating and have a
chance at conception, but it only happens two or three
times yearly

This occurs due to hormones and feedback mechanisms in the
system (whether eggs are available, etc)
Functions
 Menstrual cycle in humans and primates
 Ovarian cycle

Follicular phase
 Development of about 20 Graafian follicles in the ovary
 Hormones stimulate this
 On the 10th day, one if much larger than the others
 It continues to grow larger as the others ‘die out’
 It is then released 4-6 days later– called ovulation, or when the
feedback comes
Functions
 Menstrual cycle in humans and primates
 Uterine cycle

Menstrural phase
 Days 1-5 of cycle
 Consists of dead endometrial cells, blood, mucous, and
necrotic tissue
 Main cause- withdrawal of ovarian hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone)
Functions
 Menstrual cycle in humans and primates
 Uterine cycle (cont)


Proliferative phase
 Happens when bleeding stops
 Oestrogen causes the production of endometrium
proliferation
 New blood vessels
Secretory phase
 Happens with ovulation
 Influenced by progesterone, endometrial layer keeps growing
until maximum thickness
Functions
 Embryonic development
 Cleavage divisions


This is the process when 2-cell, 4-cell- 8-cell and 16-cell stages occur.
this is when the zygote first starts dividing
Blastomeres are the cleavage stages of the cells
 Gastrulation


This is when cells move and reorganize themselves into balls of cells
(blastula)
Germ layers
 Endoderm- internal organs and gut
 Ectoderm- exterior skin and brain layers
 Mesoderm- muscle and skeletal system
Functions
 Embryonic development (cont)
 Organogenesis



The process that transforms the mass of cells into an organ
 Important in the development of the embryo as a whole
Continues until the organ Is developed
Makes complete organs in the embryo
Reproductive System Disorders
 Endometriosis
 This is when the endometrium layer grows outside of
your uterus
 Symptoms: painful periods, pain in urination, excesive
bleeding, fatigue, nausea, constipation
 Not very common- but often mistaken for pelvic
inflammatory disease
 Treatment: pain releavers, sometimes surgery depending
on severity
Reproductive System Disorders
 Ovarian cysts
 Fluid-filled sacs within/on the ovary
 Symptoms: menstrual irregularities, pelvic pain,
heaviness in abdomen, vomiting
 Can be fairly common in those with preexisting medical
condition
 Treatment: birth control pills, surgery if cyst is large
Reproductive System
 References:












Prior zoology knowledge
http://www.uwyo.edu/wjm/repro/spermat.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10008/
http://www.uwyo.edu/wjm/repro/estrous.htm
http://www.gynaeonline.com/ovarian_cycle.htm
http://www.gynaeonline.com/uterine_cycle.htm
http://www.gynaeonline.com/uterine_cycle.htm
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/fert/cleavage.html
http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol114/Chap14/Chapter_14.html
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/432178/organogenesis
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ovarian-cysts/DS00129
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/endometriosis/DS00289
Nervous System
 The nervous system is the system in which coordinates
actions and signals in the body
Functions
 Central Nervous System
 Made up of spinal cord and brain
 Spinal cord





Runs from the base of the skull to the tail bone
Neurons are found in H-shaped area within vertebrate
Sensory nerves enter the dorsal roots,
Motor neurons exit the ventral roots
Plays a very important role in reflexes
Functions
 Central Nervous System (cont)
 Brain

Brain stem
 Medulla
 Extension of spinal cord into skull
 Pons
 In the front of the medulla, connects to cerebellum
 Midbrain
 Smallest part of brain in humans
 Connects hindbrain to forebrain
 Forebrain is further into center of the head
Functions
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Includes nerves and ganglia outside of the central
nervous system




It is the connector to the CNS
Somatic nervous system
 Cranial nerves
 Spinal nerves
 Muscular system/external receptors
Taste, touch, sight, sound smell are connected here
Autonomic nervous system Medulla oblongata functions
Functions
 Nerve impulse
 Triggered by chemicals (ions)
 Membrane potential




When the nerve signal is triggered, sodium ions
Phosphate groups are used (transfer of ATP)
Two potassium ions are used
Ion pumps
 Resting Potential
 This is when a neurone isn’t sending a signal (rest)
 The membrane is then responsible for the events
 Use protein pumps and ATP
Functions
 Nerve impulse (cont)
 Potassium ions



Do not move out of the neurone
Build-up of positive charges outside the membrane
Repels the movement of K+ ions to the outside of the cell
 Sodium ions




Basically used against the potassium ions
Have negative charge
Bind to the protein channel
ATP provides the energy to shape the channel
Functions
 Nerve impulse (cont)
 Action potential




Neruone is at rest
Happens when neurones send info down an axon
Results in electrical activity, and the cell potential changes
Potassium and sodium channels are voltage-gated
Functions
 Nerve impulse (cont)
 Depolarization


When threshold (max action potential) is stimulated, sodium
channels open
Sodium enters the axon, resulting in a positive charge
 Threshold

(see above)
 Refractory period


After an ion channel is opened- its rest period
Allows proteins of voltage sensitivity to restore to their
original polarity
Functions
 Neurotransmitters
 Chemicals that allow transmission of signals
 Occurs from one neuron to the next across synapses
 Found on axon endings of motor neurons
 Produced at adrenal glands
 It stimulates the next neuron at the synapse to pass onto
the next neuron
Nervous System Disorders
 Parkinson’s disease
 Disorder that affects movement (shaking, stiffness, slow
movements, impaired balance)
 Symptoms: (see above)
 Fairly common in older patients with preexisting
conditions,
 Treatment: no cure, but medications are available, brain
stimulation, physical thearapy
Nervous System Disorders
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
 The immune system attacks the coverings around nerve
cables in the brain and spinal cord
 Symptoms: vision problems, painful eyes, numbness,
loss of balance, slurred speech
 Occurs in those ages 20-40, symptoms do not appear
until these ages
 Treatment: no known cure, usage of corticosteroids,
plasma exchange, careful monitoring of symptoms
Nervous System
 References:







http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsycns.html
Prior zoology knowledge
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-peripheral-nervous-system.htm
http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/nerveimpulses.htm#restingpotential
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsyneurotransmitters.html
http://www.mayoclinic.org/parkinsons-disease/
http://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/guide/recognizing-multiple-sclerosis
Senses
 Sensory Receptors
 Mechanoreceptors

Detect changes in
 Pressure, position, acceleration
 Touch, stretch, hearing, equilibrium
 Thermoreceptors

Detect hot and cold (fingertips)
 Chemoreceptors


Detect ions/molecules
Smell (olfactory lobes) and taste
Senses
 Sensory Receptors (cont)
 Photoreceptors


Infrared light, visible light, magnetic fields
Eyes!
 Pain receptors



Detect sever heat/pressure
Detect chemicals
Chemicals released by inflamed tissue
Senses
 Rhodopsin
 Pigment in retina
 Photoreceptor cells
 Perception of light
 Signaling proteins


Transducers (tell cells how to react)
Tells which light to avoid, etc
Senses
 References:


http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20lectures/sensory%20sy
stems/sensory.htm
http://www.esrf.eu/UsersAndScience/Publications/Highlights/2001/life-sciences/LS13.html
Muscular System
 The muscular system is the system in which allows the
body to maintain posture, do work, and circulate
blood
Functions
 Skeletal Muscle Contraction
 Sliding filament model


Myosin causes muscle contraction
Transmit through calcium ions; usage of ATP
 Acetylcholine




Chemical transmitters contain this
Diffuse across neuromuscular cleft
Transmit molecules to fill receptor sites
Sodium diffuses and makes potential less negative
Functions
 Skeletal Muscle Contraction (cont)
 Release of Ca+ ions


Released to make the potential more negative
Aids in transport; uses gates
 Cross-bridges




Thick myofilaments
 Composed of myosin
Each myosin has a tail and forms the core of myofilament
Has a head that projects from the core
Myosin heads
Functions
 Skeletal Muscle Contraction (cont)
 Actin and Myosin Filaments



Actin combines with the myosin head
ATP is then broken down into ADP
The reaction releases energy that makes the myosin head
swivel
Muscular System Disorders
 Hypotonia
 Decrease in muscle tone
 Weakness, problems with movement, springy feeling,
damage to the brain, nerves
 Normally occurs as a result of trauma or genetic factors
 Fairly common in those with down syndrome, muscular
dystrophy, cerebral palsy, Prader-Willi
 Treatment: treated with therapy, and a few medications
Muscular System Disorders
 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
 Disorder that involves worsening of the muscles
 Symptoms: fatique, mental retardation, weakness in
muscles, falling, difficulty walking
 Occurs rapidly, normally in a wheelchair by age 12
 Treatment: no known cure, treatment to control
symptoms
Muscular System
 References:




http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2007/08/01/health/adam/19841Typesofmuscletissue.html
http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301notes3.htm
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/hypotonia/hypotonia.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001724/
Skeletal System
 The skeletal system is the system in which supports
organs, anchors muscles, protects organs, and
maintains body shape
Functions
 Bones
 Hold body frame
 Protect organs
 Aids in movement (balance)
 Ligaments
 Connects bones
 Made of collagen
 Helps aid in movement
 Moves bones with muscles
Functions
 Muscles
 Allow body to move; function
 Autonomic functions (heartbeat)
 Skeletal muscles attached to skeletal system
 Strength in movement
 Tendons
 Connects muscle to bone
 Works together with muscle in movement
 Made of collagen
Functions
 Hydrostatic skeleton
 Earthworms – no bones, fluid in the coelom supports
the body
 Exoskeleton
 Crayfish – composed of chitin, proteins, and lipids
(some contain calcium carbonate)
 Endoskeleton
 Frogs – made of bone, helps support body weight, have
vertebrate
Skeletal System Disorders
 Mastoiditis
 Infection of mastoid bone in skull
 Symptoms: drainage from ear, ear pain, fever, headache,
hearing loss, swelling
 Occurs when infections happen (sometimes)
 Treatment: difficult to treat, nor many medications are
deep enough to reach the bone; antibiotic injections,
antibiotic pills
Skeletal System Disorders
 Myelomeningocele (spine bifida)
 Birth defect in which the backbone and spinal canal
don’t close before birth
 Symptoms: loss of bladder control, paralysis of legs,
abnormal feet, lack of sensation, build-up of fluid in
skull
 Happens during pregnancy, 1/800 infants
 Treatment: surgery, therapy, will affect the child
throughout his/her life
Skeletal System
 References:




Prior zoology knowledge
http://hes.ucfsd.org/gclaypo/skelweb/skel01.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002029/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002525/