Don’t Get Fooled Again!
Common Fallacies in Argument to
Look for and Avoid
Mr. Richard “The Grammar Hammer” Martin
Everyday, ARGUMENTS!
 Everyday, we’re bombarded with arguments trying to convince us of
something…
---from parents
---from friends
---from teachers
---from the internet
---from television
---from radio
We’re told to…
---do our homework
---watch this movie
---buy this product
---clean our rooms
---drink this type of soda
---go out for this activity
Is every argument we hear a good one? ….
NO! Some arguments are based on fallacies!
What is a FALLACY?
A fallacy is an argument that seems to use good
reasoning, but does not. Fallacies are deceptive
and can lead us to believe something that is not
true.
Can you spot the fault in reasoning in the
following examples?
1. “How can you tell me to stop cussing when you do
it yourself?”
2. “I think scientists are wrong about global
warming. Last summer was pretty cool here.”
3. “Fords are bad cars. I owned one and it was
always in the shop.”
Ad Hominem Fallacy
When an argument is said not to be true because of an unfair claim against the
speaker. It usually involves an attack on the speaker’s character. Ad hominem is Latin
for “to the man.”
Examples:
1. “Thad says that Coach Jones is a great coach, but of course he’s going to say
that. Coach Jones’s always puts Thad in the starting line-up.”
--Why does the speaker discount Thad’s opinion?
--Might Coach Jones’ be a good coach?
--What might you assume about the speaker, from his words?
2. “Mr. Candidate is lying when he says he will serve the interests of the people
if elected to office. He’s only concerned with helping the big corporations that
donate money to his campaign.”
--Why does the speaker discount Mr. Candidate?
--Is it possible that Mr. Candidate might still serve the interests of the people?
--Is Mr. Candidate the only one campaigning for public office that gets funding
from big corporations?
3. “Don’t believe Jimmy! He’s a moron. He still believes in Santa.”
--Does believing in Santa mean that you can’t trust Jimmy?
When a Questioning of Character Is Good.
Should we always give someone the benefit of the doubt?
When should you not trust someone because of their motives
or past?
Is it a good practice to “consider the source” of what you
hear?
Is the following a good quote to live by? “Fool me once,
shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.”
Consider the following situations…
1.
Susie Student never seems to get along with anyone. Should I
believe her when she says, “Tommy is a mean jerk”?
2. Sammy Student has been caught cheating before. Should
I give him the benefit of the doubt when his answers on an
assignment are suspiciously similar to his best friend’s? Sammy
said he “did it at home on his own.”
Other Personal Attack Fallacies
Tu Quoque—Latin for “You too.” When you dismiss
someone’s viewpoint because they seem hypocritical.
Example:
Older brother: “I wouldn’t smoke cigarettes if I were you. Once you start, you
won’t be able to quit. You could end up with lung cancer.”
Younger brother: “Don’t tell me not to smoke! You do it too!”
--Just because the older brother smokes, does that make his argument wrong?
 Genetic Fallacy—Condemning an argument because of
where it began, how it began, or who began it.
Example:
Republican: “Democrats want to raise the minimum wage. Dumb Democrats.
Their ideas are always terrible.”
Democrat: “Republicans want to take away a woman’s right to an abortion.
Dumb Republicans. Their ideas are always terrible.”
Appeal to Pity Fallacy
 An appeal to pity occurs when someone tries to convince you to
help them by getting you to feel sorry for them. An appeal to pity
can be good or fallacious.
 Pity can be a good thing. It’s not necessarily wrong to
sympathize with some one and want to offer them help.
 Do the following two people deserve pity?
1. Mr. Johnson, I know I bombed the test Monday, but can you
keep me eligible in your class? My team is playing in the state
finals, and if I’m on the court, I know we’ll win.
2. I know my record shows I got fired from my last two jobs.
But I’m more responsible now. I screwed up and I’ve learned
from my mistakes. I just need one more chance. Please hire me
and give me that chance.
 Which appeal to pity is more likely to convince you and why?
Appeal to Pity Continued…
Below are two more appeals to pity. Which one seems fallacious?
Example #1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_aRUUdEFRY&feature=related
Example #2
http://potifos.com/fraud/2004-04-19.html
What are two things that made Example #1’s appeal to pity strong?
What are two things that made Example #2’s appeal to pity weak?
Appeal to Pity--Continued
When the US government deliberated going to war with Iraq in 1990 to
liberate Kuwait, a fifteen-year-old girl identified only as Nayirah
(sobbing), testified before the Congressional Human Rights Caucus
that she had seen Iraqi soldiers take babies out of incubators.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fv28_q98Xe8&NR=1
The resolution to go to war passed in the US Senate by only five votes.
seven senators mentioned the incubator atrocity in the debate on
whether to go to war. Later it was found out that Nayirah was a member
of Kuwait’s royal family. Also, the story was made up and promoted
by an American public relations firm with ties to Kuwait.
This false appeal to pity may have helped lead to a war.
--taken from A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy by Douglas Walton
Appeal to Fear
 An appeal to fear occurs when the speaker states that if you don’t
take action, something bad will result. Like most appeals, it can be used
strong or fallaciously. See if you can explain the appeals to fear in these
next two examples. How might they be strong? How might they be
fallacious?
1.
Advertisement for a new car with improved brakes: Scene of a mother
driving the new car with young daughter sleeping in the passenger seat.
Suddenly, a deer jumps in front of the car. The screen freezes. “Does you
car have all-wheel-drive?”
2. Advertisement: A picture of a dingy bathroom. “Is this what your
bathroom looks like?” A microscopic close-up of the bathtub follows,
showing little bugs crawling around. “Here is what is going on where you
can’t see. Use Evergreen for a fresher-looking bathroom.”
---both taken from The Fallacy Detective by Nathaniel & Hans Bluedorn
Appeal to Fear
Watch these the two following commercials. Do either of them
contain an appeal to fear? Are there any faults with the arguments
of either advertisement?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y8YVqECqeE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQlpDiXPZHQ
Can you think of any other commercials that contain an appeal to fear?
Appeal to Fear
Threats are also a type of appeal to fear. A threat is not a respectable
form of persuasion, but it can be effective…
Lucy: Why don't you be a good little brother and go make
me a jelly bread sandwich? If you don't I'm going to leap
on you and pound you right through the floor! So why
don't you make me that jelly-bread sandwich, huh?
Please, dear brother?
Linus: (heading off for the kitchen) When someone asks
you that nicely, how can you refuse?
Sometimes a threat is merely hinted at…
“The Nazis used to send the following notice to German readers who let
their subscriptions lapse: ‘Our paper certainly deserves the support of
every German. We shall continue to forward copies of it to you, and
hope that you will not want to expose yourself to unfortunate
consequences in the case of cancellation.’”---Parade Magazine, May 9, 1971
Appeal to Fairness
An appeal to fairness occurs when the speaker claims that someone is
not being treated fairly—one group gets something, so why not the
other group? Again, this appeal can be used well and be rational or
be used poorly and be fallacious. Examples…
 “How come Billy got to have a slumber party for his birthday, and I
didn’t, Mom? It’s not fair!”
 “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to
the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the
State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws….”—the 14th
Amendment
Appeal to Fairness
Are the following two examples good or bad appeals to fairness? In trying
to treat one group fairly, is another group being treated unfairly?
 Everyone has a right to his or her own property. Mr. Jones was
institutionalized for his murderous fantasies due to his mental illness.
but he’s been released now, and he’s asking you to give his rifle and
shotgun collection back. Therefore, you must give him the weapons.
--taken from A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy by Douglas Walton
 Statistics tell us that white males enjoy more power and wealth than
women and minorities. This is not fair and will only continue unless
there is a law that forces businesses and universities to hire more
women and minorities. So, we need to support affirmative action.
The Faulty Analogy Fallacy
An analogy is a comparison between two different items. We notice
these items are the same in one or more ways and assume that
they will be the same in other ways too.
Here are a few examples of analogies. What are the two items being
compared in each? How strong is the reasoning in each?
1. “The last time I went with you to watch a basketball game, you
got thrown out. And now you want me to go to a baseball game
with you?”
2. “I had a friend also named Jesse once, and he had red hair like
you, too. He stole some money from me. You know what, stay
away from me.”
3. “I need to hire someone responsible to baby sit my kids. I hired
Sarah to water my plants while I was on vacation. My plants died.
I think I’ll ask someone other than Sarah to babysit.”
The Faulty Analogy Fallacy
An analogy is faulty when the differences between the two items are far
greater than the similarities.
Moe: Hey, Calvin, you’re on my swing. Get lost.
Calvin: I’m not scared of you, Moe.
Moe: Oh no?
Calvin: Nope. You’re so dumb you probably never
thought about how a sparrow’s smaller size and greater
maneuverability is an advantage in fighting off crows.
Moe: Yeah? (Moe then punches Calvin off the swing)
Calvin: (On the ground, seeing stars) Those TV nature
shows will be the death of me.
Watch the following ad from the 2008 Presidential
Campaign. What is the faulty analogy being made?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phBBnxXJdoM
The Slippery Slope Fallacy
 In a slippery slope fallacy, the speaker falsely assumes that one
action will lead to a whole series of actions. How are the following
two examples slippery slopes? Do they show good logic?
1. Mother to her son:
“If you’re bad enough to cheat, then you’re bad enough to steal.
And if you’re bad enough to steal, then you’re bad enough to attack
someone. And if you’re bad enough to attack someone, then you’re
bad enough to be a murderer. Do you want to be a murder? Then
don’t cheat.”
2. Teacher to a student:
“I can’t allow you to turn this assignment in late for credit, because
then I’ll have to allow every student to start turning assignments in
late. Then students will just become irresponsible, and never bother
meeting deadlines. Then they’ll get fired from their jobs when they
get older. So I’m giving you a zero because I don’t want you to get
fired later in life.”
The Slippery Slope Fallacy
 In the 1960’s, a widely-held slippery slope argument played a role in
leading the US to fight in Vietnam. The argument was this:
“If the US allows communist China and Russia to support communist
forces in Vietnam, then Vietnam will become communist. Soon other countries
in Southeast Asia will fall prey to communism. Eventually, communism will
spread to other areas of the globe. It will be a domino effect. So, the US needs
to take a stand now and support the anti-communist forces in Vietnam.
Otherwise, there may be no end to the spread of communism.”
 Nearly 60,000 American died in the Vietnam War, and Vietnam fell to
communism anyway. However, communism did not spread around the
globe.
The Straw Man Fallacy
 The fallacy of straw man occurs when the speaker tries to change or
exaggerate an opponent’s position to make it easier to refute.
Examples-1. Dad: “That’s it. I’m taking away your phone. You spend 24-7 on
that thing, you’re racking up a huge phone bill, and you don’t spend
anytime studying.”
Daughter: “Oh, so you want to cut me off from the world, never talk
to anyone, and have no friends?”
2. Candidate A: “Due to this year’s budget problems, I think our state
should decrease the amount of money going to prisons. This would
solve our current problem, and then next year we can bring the
amount of prison funding back to normal.”
Candidate B: “My fellow citizens, is this what you want in a
candidate? Someone who withholds money from prisons, allowing
criminals to go wild?”
The Straw Man Fallacy
As the following video shows, the straw man fallacy was used to great
effect in the recent debate over President Obama’s health care plan.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=587R3j7Jjmw&feature=related
 Opponents of the President’s plan exaggerated a provision for
“end-of-life counseling” (talking to a heath care professional
about your final wishes) into “death panels” (which implies a
panel of people deciding if it’s worth keeping you alive).
The Hasty Generalization Fallacy
 A generalization takes a sample of a class of things, and then based
on that sample, concludes that one thing is true about the entire class.
--Class—a particular group of things or people
--Sample—a number of things or people from a class
 A generalization with a large sample is usually considered strong.
“I surveyed 2,500 dentists from all over the nation, and over 80% of
them said Colgate makes the best toothpaste on the market. When
it comes to toothpaste, dentists prefer Colgate.”
 A generalization with a small sample is usually considered “hasty.”
“I asked my dentist what toothpaste he recommended. She likes
Aqua Fresh. Since all dentists are recommending Aqua Fresh, it must
be the best.”
The Hasty Generalization Fallacy
 How do you tell if a generalization is hasty? Ask two questions:
--Is the sample large enough for the argument?
--Does the sample include a variety of people or things
from the class?
What went wrong with the following generalizations?
 I interviewed 10,000 residents of nursing homes, and I’ve
discovered that America’s favorite TV program is Wheel of Fortune.
 My kid brother loves the Pokemon cartoon. It’s the most popular
cartoon among kids.
The Hasty Generalization Fallacy
 Poor generalizations are a cousin to racism and racial profiling . A
generalization assumes that all members of a group are a certain
way. Racism assumes that all members of a race are a certain way.
 Recently, Arizona passed a law that states police can stop anyone
they suspect of being an illegal immigrant and ask for proof of
citizenship. The law is in response to Arizona’s problem with
illegal Mexican immigrants. Opponents of the law say it will lead to
racial profiling. Racial profiling occurs when members of one
particular race are targeted as being suspicious. Understandably,
US citizens of Mexican heritage fear police may generalize that
because they’re Hispanic, they need their papers checked. Watch
the news story below.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLafP8Qrp7I
The Hasty Generalization Fallacy
Mean-spirited generalizations about different races and cultures are
nothing new. It’s important to remember how harmful and
dangerous they can be. The Nazis of WWII-era Germany generalized
that Jews were money-hording, big-nosed, controllers of business
who needed to be stopped. What happened as a result of that
generalization?
Appeal to Authority
 An appeal to authority occurs when a speaker refers to the opinion of an
authority on the topic they’re discussing.
An “authority” is someone who has special knowledge on a specific topic.
 An appeal to authority is a good arguing technique if, indeed, the “authority”
does have special knowledge of the topic. An appeal to authority is a fallacy,
however, if the “authority” doesn’t have special knowledge of the subject.
 A fallacious appeal to authority basically calls someone an expert
who is not.
 Are the following examples fallacious or rational appeals to authority?
1.
I talked to a couple of friends who work with computers and they said the
new IPad is amazing. I think I’ll buy one.
2. Well, my mom’s a dental assistant, and she says that the mole on my back
looks nothing like skin cancer. I’ll forget about going to get it removed.
3. My best friend wasn’t at the fight, but she says she heard Jimmy threw a
basketball at Timmy, and then Timmy body slammed Jimmy.
Appeal to Authority
 A common fallacious appeal to authority is the celebrity
endorsement. Just because someone is famous, doesn’t mean they’re an
authority on everything. In the following commercials, can the celebrity
be considered an authority about the quality of the product he’s
pitching?
1. Michael Jordan—Cars
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JtIMyxKXhc
2. Michael Jordan—Hair products
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGNi5ULTghw&feature=related
3. Michael Jordan –Basketball shoes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Obj5eoSpu8&feature=related
Who might be a better authority on the first two topics Jordan endorses?
Post Hoc Fallacy
 A Post Hoc Fallacy falsely assumes that because event “A”
happened before event “B,” event “A” must have caused event
“B.”
 Which of the following present a post hoc fallacy?
1. I never turned in my homework, so now I have an “F” in class.
2. I forgot to wear my lucky socks, so we lost the game.
3. A study shows that Harvard graduates make five times as much
money as non-college grads. If you go to Harvard, you’ll make
a lot of money.
4. Test scores of student who listen to classical music are
significantly higher than test scores of those that listen to
country music. Listen to classical music and you’ll be smarter
Post Hoc Fallacy
To help identify if an argument is post hoc error, break the argument
down this way:
1. What is the “event A”?
2. What is the “event B”?
3. Is it likely that something other than “event A” caused “event B”?
 Ask the above questions about the following arguments.
1. Studies actually show that when paper clip sales go up, the crime rate
tends to go down. So to decrease the crime rate, we’ve got to start
selling more paper clips.
2. Studies show that students who study more generally get better grades.
Students who study at least 4 hours a week earn an average grade of
93%. Students who study only 1 hour a week earn an average of 79%.
Studying leads to better grades.
Ad Populum Fallacy
 An Ad Populum fallacy occurs when someone argues that because
everybody else thinks something, it must be true. Ad Populum is
Latin for “to the people.”
 Examples:
---I think Mr. Hawkins is a great math teacher. But because all
the other kids make fun of him, he must not be that good.
---I see a lot of kids drinking KICKBUTT Energy Drink every
morning, so it must really help you get going.
---I think that new Black-Eyed Pea’s song “Imabee” is totally
dumb, but everybody’s always singing it in the hallways. I guess it’s
kind of good.
 If 99% of the people in school thought 2+2=5, the answer would still
be 4.
Ad Populum Fallacy
Watch the following cartoon. What is the Ad Populum Arthur falls prey
to? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrPPZ0DE8pk&feature=related
 Sometimes, in cases where majority rules, an appeal to popularity
is a good arguing technique. In which example below is an appeal to
popularity relevant?
1. “The student council voted 12-4 in favor of a ‘Disco Night’ dance. It
doesn’t matter that you still would rather have a ‘Barnyard Dance.’”
2. “Most kids don’t like eating their vegetables. So, we shouldn’t have to
eat them, Mom.”
Exigency
 Exigency occurs when nothing more than a time limit is given as a
reason for us to buy or do something.
-- definition taken from The Fallacy Detective by Nathaniel & Hans Bluedorn
 Exigency is not totally a fallacy; it just states a fact. However,
advertisers use it to try to influence you to stop thinking and just
do it.
 Common exigency phrases include:
-- “While supplies last.”
-- “This deal won’t last long.”
-- “Hurry! Sale ends tonight!”
-- “Time is running out.”
 See if you can pick out the exigency in the
following ad? Do you think it’s even true?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwRISkyV_B8&feature=related
Appeal to Tradition Fallacy
 An appeal to tradition fallacy occurs when the speaker encourages us to
buy into something because it is associated with tradition.
 Any time you see phrases like “Since 1882” or “Established 1961”
beneath a logo, that’s a slight appeal to tradition. It’s suggesting that
because that company has been around for a long-time, they must
be a reliable company and sell good products. How does the following
Geico commercial use an appeal to tradition.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7OIEFo2axGE&feature=related
 An appeal to tradition works on people
who like the old style of something, not the
new. It also works on those who view
themselves as “to hip to follow the latest
trend.”
 It can be a fallacy because age may have
little to do with quality.
Appeal of the Hi-Tech Fallacy
 The opposite of the appeal to tradition, this appeal suggest that
just because something is newer, it must be better.
 Phrases associated with this appeal include “new and improved,”
“latest breakthrough,” and “latest advance.”
 May use scientific jargon or hi-tech language to show it’s
technologically advanced.
 How does the following skin care product advertisement use hi-tech
appeal?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Hbky_bvtow
The Fallacy Song
(to the tune of the Who’s “Won’t Get Fooled Again”)
Well, don’t try to fool me
With your attempt at exigency
I won’t buy it just because your sale ends tonight
Try tearing down her or him
With your cruel ad homenim
We’ll they’re still correct, so don’t you take’em light
If your gonna make a hasty generalization
I’m not gonna change my dial to your station
I’m immune to your appeal to pity
I’ll just pick up my guitar and strum
And ignore your ad populum
And I think that your post hoc’s dumb
We won’t get fooled again!
Won’t get fooled again!
No, no!
YAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH!
No more fallacy
Or idiocracy