Fallacies of Thinking:

Appeal to ignorance: This logical fallacy suggests that since no one has ever proved a
particular claim, it must be false. Appeals to ignorance unfairly shift the burden of proof to
someone else.
o Example: Show me one study that proves cigarettes lead to heart disease.

Appeal to pity: A person using this fallacy would appeal to the emotions of the audience to
help persuade them of their point.
o Example: A student says, “May I have an extension on this paper? I worked on it
all weekend, but it’s still not done.”

Bandwagon: This appeal applies to everyone’s desire to belong or be accepted. Someone
using this appeal would mention how others are doing this and so should the audience.
o Example: Everyone walked out of the meeting. It was the smartest thing to do.

Broad generalization: A broad generalization takes in everything and everyone at once,
allowing no exceptions.
o Example: College students can’t manage money.

Circular thinking: This fallacy consists of assuming the very point you are trying to prove. It
would be like using a word to write the word’s definition.
o Example: I hate my night class because I’m never happy when I’m there.

Either – or-thinking: This logic reduces a solution to two possible extremes such as “Love it
or leave it.” Any middle possibilities have been eliminated.
o Example: Either this community provides light-rail transportation, or it will be
impossible to expand in the future.

Half-truths: In this fallacy, while all the information given may be accurate, some pertinent
information has been left out.
o Example: The new welfare bill is good because it will get people off the public
dole. (Maybe so, but it may also cause undue suffering to some truly needy
individuals.)

Oversimplification: Hints of oversimplification can be found in key phrases like “It all boils
down to. . .” or “It’s a simple question of . . .” where too much is lumped together.
o Example: Capital punishment is a simple question of protecting society.

Slanted language (also known as Loaded Words): Selecting words that carry strong positive
or negative connotations can distract the audience away from valid arguments. Think of the
differences in selecting a synonym for stubborn: firm, obstinate, pigheaded.
o Example: No one in his right mind would ever agree to anything so ridiculous.

Testimonial (also known as Authority): This is a false appeal to ethos. The person is a
recognized authority in some field. However, they may not be specialized in the field in
which they are testifying.
o Example: A sports hero on television is promoting a cold medicine.

False causality: The error of concluding that an event is caused by another event simply
because it follows it.
Example: It hailed this morning. The engine of my car won’t turn over. The hail
must have ruined my engine.

Self-contradiction: Statements that are in opposition to one another.
Example: I love all pie, but I hate apple pie.
Write for College: A Student Handbook. Comp. Patrick Sebranek, Verne Meyer, and
Dave Kemper. Wilmington, Massachusetts: Write Source, 1997. 245-246.