Results and Discussion of Color Words From Questionnaire
Native English Speaker Group
An adjective or a noun used to describe each color term
Table 1 presents the nouns or adjectives assigned to each color term. The data
revealed that red is mostly associated with hot, bloody and violent. Yellow is
considered warm, but negative meanings of scared and caution is also extended.
Green is not only related to natural and fresh but also envious. Blue is connected
with sky, but meanwhile, the meaning of sadness is given. Dark and mysterious are
assigned to black, with death and evil being connected with black as well. Pure and
clean are mostly given for the answers of white. The majority answers are shown in
bold print.
Table 1
An adjective or a noun used to describe each color term in native English speaker
group
Color term
An adjective/ a noun used to describe
Red
hot, fast, bloody, violent, passion, warm, stop, danger, bright,
fire, fiery, attention, anger
Yellow
warm, calm, tropical, sunny, happy, bright, scared, submarine,
caution, fuzzy, sun, mellow, taxi, wild, cheerful
Green
Peaceful, fresh, ready, nature, spontaneous, wealth, envious,
grass, go, friendly, new, comfortable
Blue
sad, cold, vast, sky, honesty, quiet, cool, peace, ocean, calm,
moody, beautiful, depressing
Black
death, dark, sad, mysterious, normal, evil, hole, inclusive,
night, dangerous, strong
White
pure, peaceful, neutral, life, clean, light, exposed, good,
lacking, snow, innocent
The Association of Color Term to 30 Objects and the Extended Meanings
Table 2 displays the percentage of six color terms associated with 30 objects in
native English speaker group. The majority answer is represented.
RED
Red is 100% for blood, 90% for angry, 90% for passion, 85% for romantic, 80% for
hell, 65% for war, 55% for exciting, 55% for bankrupt, and 30% for woman.
YELLOW
Yellow is 80% for the sun, 65% for happy, 45% for flower, and 40% for dessert.
GREEN
Green is 65% for success, 60% for lucky, and 50% for immature.
BLUE
Blue is 100% for the sky, 45% for man, and 45% for rainy.
BLACK
Black is 80% for evil, and 55% for politics.
WHITE
White is 100% for wedding, 85% for innocent, 65% for the moon, 65% for heaven,
45% for young, 60% for peace, 45% for hospital, 45% for old, and 30% for woman.
Table 2
The percentage of associations of each color term to 30 objects in native English
speaker group
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Black
White
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
Flower
8
40
9
45
2
10
1
5
0
0
0
0
Woman
6
30
4
20
0
0
4
20
0
0
6
30
Man
4
20
0
0
0
0
9
45
7
35
0
0
Wedding
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
100
Blood
20
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Peace
0
0
0
0
4
20
4
20
0
0
12
60
The sun
4
20
16
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
War
13
65
0
0
1
5
0
0
6
30
0
0
The moon
0
0
2
10
0
0
3
15
2
10
13
65
The sky
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
100
0
0
0
0
Exciting
11
55
8
40
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
angry
18
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
10
0
0
Happy
0
0
13
65
3
15
2
10
0
0
2
10
Immature
1
5
1
5
10
50
2
10
1
5
5
25
Evil
4
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
80
0
0
Passion
18
90
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
Lucky
1
5
5
25
12
60
2
10
0
0
0
0
Hell
16
80
1
5
0
0
0
0
3
15
0
0
Success
0
0
3
15
13
65
2
10
1
5
1
5
Innocent
0
0
0
0
3
15
0
0
0
0
17
85
Heaven
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
35
0
0
13
65
Romantic
17
85
0
0
1
5
2
10
0
0
0
0
Sweet
5
20
5
20
2
10
1
5
0
0
7
35
Bankrupt
11
55
0
0
1
5
0
0
8
40
0
0
Young
0
0
2
10
8
40
1
5
0
0
9
45
Politics
4
20
1
5
1
5
3
15
11
55
0
0
Hospital
7
35
0
0
3
15
0
0
1
5
9
45
Old
0
0
2
10
1
5
5
25
3
15
9
45
Dessert
1
5
8
40
1
5
1
5
4
20
5
25
Rainy
1
5
0
0
4
20
9
45
5
20
1
5
Note. The majority answers are shown in bold type
A more detailed understanding of the association of a color term to 30 objects
and the extended meaning can be gained from Table 3. The data from native English
speaker group were analyzed and taken into two main domains: the concrete/
perception and the abstract/ conceptualization.
Table 3
Color meaning analysis in native English speaker group
Color is
Concrete/
Abstract/Conceptualization-based type
associated
with
Perceptionbased type
Metaphorical Metonymic
extension
extension
Flower
red
Woman
red
Blood
red
War
red
bloody
Exciting
red
heart
pounding
Angry
red
“see red”
Passion
red
excited
Hell
red
Romantic
red
Bankrupt
red
“in the red”
Hospital
red
red cross
Flower
yellow
sun flower
The sun
yellow
Happy
yellow
Dessert
yellow
Immature
green
Lucky
green
money
Success
green
money
Young
green
Man
blue
The sky
blue
Rainy
blue
Arbitrary
extension
roses
feminine
blood
bull
fighting
lip
flame
passion
roses/
heart sharp
sunshine
bright
smile face
icon
cake
inexperience
inexperience
beginning
jean
logic
blue sky
water
(Table continues)
Table 3 (continued)
Color meaning analysis in native English speaker group
Color is
Concrete/
Abstract/Conceptualization-based type
associated
with
Perceptionbased type
Metaphorical Metonymic
extension
extension
Evil
black
Bankrupt
black
Politics
black
Woman
white
Wedding
white
wedding
dress
Peace
white
dove/ white
Arbitrary
extension
darkness
sad
corruption
purity
flag
The moon
white
moonlight
Innocent
white
Heaven
white
angel/ cloud
Sweet
white
sugar
Hospital
white
uniform
Old
white
white hair
pure/ children
A. Concrete/ Perception-based type
Concrete/ Perception-based type is automatically ascribed to the awareness of
concrete. This type of word is straightforward since people can effortlessly perceive
the color that the objects refer to.
Blood – red. The sun – yellow. The sky – blue. The moon – white.
Red is certainly referred to as the color of blood and blue is the only
perception color assigned to the sky. The light and brightness of the sun and moon
are individually concrete to the color of yellow and white.
B. Abstract/ Conceptualization-base type
When people see the color, they will connect their concept of the experience of
seeing things; namely, there is a conceptual feature. A metaphorical extension in the
property source of the color terms is mapped onto other domains. The association of
an abstract concept with the color terms through a concrete basis is the extension of
metonym. Arbitrary extension occurs when there is no obvious reason for the
derivation of the words in color terms.
B-1 Associative Meaning of RED
Metaphorical Extension
1. Woman – red – feminine, 2. War – red –bloody,
3. Exciting – red – heart-pounding, 4. Passion –red –excited,
5. Romantic –red –passion, 6. Anger –red – ‘see red’
Blood brings forth the heart; thus, it is associated with red. Feminine to woman,
bloody to war, heart pounding to exciting, excitement to passion, and anger to see
red represent meanings which are metaphorical.
Metonymic Extension
1. Flower – red – roses, 2. Passion – red – lip,
3. Hell – red – flame, 4. Romantic – red – roses/ heart sharp,
5. Bankrupt – red – ‘in the red’, 6. Hospital – red – red-cross
Red-color words are related to not only blood but fire and refer to flowers.
“In the red” is connected with bankruptcy that can be referred to as metonymic
extension. Roses to flower, lip to passion, flame to hell, and heart sharp to romantic,
and red-cross to hospital are all red-color associations.
Arbitrary Extension
Exciting – bullfighting
Bullfighting is a traditional spectacle of Spain, Portugal, some cities in southern
France, and several Latin American countries, in which one or more live bulls are
ritually killed in a bullring as a public spectacle. The matador enters the ring alone
with a small red cape and a sword. It is a common misconception that the color red
is supposed to anger the bull, despite the fact that bulls are colorblind. The cape is
red to mask the bull's blood.
B-2 Associative Meaning of
YELLOW
Metaphorical Extension
Happy – yellow – warm
The property source, the sun can account for the yellow color. Yellow is the
concrete color of the sun. Sunshine is bright and makes people feel warm. Certainly
the feeling of happiness is brought.
Metonymic Extension
1. Flower – yellow – sunflower, 2.Happy – yellow – smile face,
3. Dessert – yellow – cake
The color of sunflower, smile face icon, and cake has a concrete basis with the
yellow color.
B-3 Associative Meaning of GREEN
Metaphorical Extension
Immature and young – green – inexperience
Green signifying immaturity, and lacking sophistication or experience is
derived from the attribute of unripe fruits. The extensions are conceptual.
Immaturity and youth are considered related to inexperience.
Metonymic Extension
1. Lucky – green – money, 2. Success – green – money
Green may signify luck and success because of money, the color of banknotes.
Furthermore, the shamrock is a lucky charm in the west, so green is also connected
with luck.
Arbitrary Extension
Young – green – beginning
The possible account is that green is fresh and natural. The employment of
green indicated the extent to the life is reborn; thus, a new beginning may be
represented by the color green.
B-4 Associative Meaning of BLUE
Metonymic Extension
1. Man – blue – jeans, 2. Rainy – blue – water
Blue is the meaning of metonymic extension to indicate man because of the
typical idea of blue jeans. Rainy days are connected to water, so its color is blue.
Arbitrary Extension
Man – blue – logic
Logic concerns the structure of statements and arguments, in formal system of
inference and natural language. Topics include validity, fallacies and paradoxes,
reasoning using probability, and arguments involving causality. Normally, men are
asked to be strong and tough; they are good at mathematical logic in general. This is
the only connection that can be linked into man.
B-5 Associative Meaning of BLACK
Metaphorical Extension
1. War – black – death, 2. Bankrupt – black – sad
Black in the west is the color of funerals. Therefore, the extended meanings of
death and sadness are given to black.
Metonymic Extension
Evil – black – darkness
The meanings and usages of evil are wicked and evil things. Darkness is
perceived as malevolent. Darkness is a perception of the color black.
Arbitrary Extension
Politics – black – corruption
The ideas of politics concerned most are referred to malevolent events that
cause people to feel worse. Thus corruption is an arbitrary extension to the color of
black.
B-6 Associative Meaning of WHITE
White is widely extended to woman, wedding, peace, immature, innocent,
heaven, sweet, hospital and even old. Immaturity is not only associated with green
but also white in the English group, as well as in the Chinese group.
Metaphorical Extension
1. Woman – white – purity, 2. Innocent – white – pure
White semantic meaning is pure in English. The designated concepts are based
on the properties of color.
Metonymic Extension
1. Wedding –white – wedding dress, 2. Peace – white – dove/ white flag,
3. Heaven – white – angel/ cloud, 4. Sweet – white – sugar,
5. Hospital – white – uniform; 6. Old – white – white hair
The white color extended by metonym indicated an abstract idea with concrete
basis. The whiteness of objects or affairs refers to its perceptibility. The traditional
wedding gown is the color of white, so obviously it is fully connected. White flag
and dove is the extension to indicate peace because of their color of white. The
concrete color of cloud and sugar is white; thus, they are linked into heaven and
sweetness. Hospital is a metonymic extension of white because the uniform worn by
medical staff is mostly white. Old is white because of white hair.
Native Mandarin Chinese Speaker Group
An adjective or a noun used to describe each color term
Table 4 illustrates that by assigning a noun or adjective to each color term, the
results are that red is mostly described to passion and joy, so that word feature is
positive. Yellow is considered bright or shining; empire is a remarkable answer;
pornography, moreover, is a negative term. Green is related to energy, nature and
comfort; unfaithful is unique in the answers. Positive terms are given to blue with
only two negative features, depression and gloom are written. Darkness and mystery
are described as black. White is clearly represented by purity in the answers. The
majority answers are shown in bold print.
Table 4
An adjective or a noun used to describe each color term in native Mandarin Chinese
speaker group
Color term
An adjective or a noun used to describe
Red
passionate, joyful, happy, hot, heat, gorgeous
Yellow
bright, shining, empire, porn, sunset, tender, animated, vivid,
good luck, warm, rich, dull, individual, fresh, conceited
Green
green land, energy, grace, clear, natural, sheep, prosperous,
comfortable, protection, eco-friendly, easy, energy, fresh,
unfaithful
Blue
sky, wide, gloomy, comfortable, peace, cheap, light,
depressed, wide, easy, relieved, cool, steady
Black
dark, serious, sorrow, heavy, calm, handsome, secret, peaceful,
mysterious, dim, individual, calm
White
Innocent, pure, ordinary
The Association of Color Term to 30 Objects and the Extended Meanings
Table 5 lists the percentage of 6 color terms is associated with 30 objects in
native Mandarin Chinese speaker group.
RED
Red is 95% for blood, 90% for passion, 80% for exciting, 75% for angry, 75% for
flower, 60% for lucky, 55% for woman, 55% for the sun, 35% for happy, and 35%
for romantic.
YELLOW
Yellow is 55% for the moon, 45% for success, 40% for dessert, and 35% for happy.
GREEN
Green is 40% for young.
BLUE
Blue is 100% for sky, 60% for rainy, and 45% for man.
BLACK
Black is 100% for evil, 90% for hell, 90% for bankrupt, 70% for politics, and 60%
for war.
WHITE
White is 100% for innocent, 95% for hospital, 90% for heaven, 85% for peace, 55%
for immature, 55% for wedding, 45% for sweet, and 40% for old.
Table 5
The percentage of associations of each color term to 30 objects in native Mandarin
Chinese speaker group
Color
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Black
White
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
№
%
Flower
15
75
3
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
10
Woman
11
55
0
0
1
5
1
5
4
20
3
15
Man
1
5
1
5
2
10
9
45
4
20
3
15
Wedding
7
35
1
5
0
0
1
5
0
0
11
55
Blood
19
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
Peace
0
0
0
0
2
10
1
5
0
0
17
85
The sun
11
55
9
45
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
War
7
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
60
1
5
The moon
0
0
11
55
0
0
0
0
1
5
8
40
The sky
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
100
0
0
0
0
Exciting
16
80
2
10
2
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
angry
15
75
0
0
2
10
1
5
2
10
0
0
Happy
7
35
7
35
1
5
4
20
0
0
1
5
Immature
1
5
6
30
1
5
0
0
1
5
11
55
Evil
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
100
0
0
Passion
18
90
2
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Lucky
12
60
5
25
2
10
0
0
0
0
1
5
Hell
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
90
1
5
Success
5
20
9
45
0
0
2
10
1
5
3
15
Innocent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
100
Heaven
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
10
0
0
18
90
Romantic
7
35
6
30
1
5
1
5
0
0
5
25
Sweet
5
25
5
25
0
0
1
5
0
0
9
45
Bankrupt
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
90
1
5
Young
1
5
5
25
8
40
3
15
0
0
3
15
Politics
0
0
0
0
2
10
4
20
14
70
0
0
Hospital
1
5%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
95
Old
0
0
3
15
0
0
2
10
7
35
8
40
Dessert
3
15
8
40
2
10
0
0
3
15
4
20
Rainy
0
0
1
5
1
5
12
60
6
30
0
0
p.s. The majority answers are shown in bold type
Table 6 offers a taxonomy that reflects the semantic extension of six color term.
From native Mandarin Chinese speaker group, the data were analyzed and taken into
two main domains: the concrete/ perception and the abstract/ conceptualization as
well as Native English speaker group.
Table 6
Color meaning analysis in native Mandarin Chinese speaker group
Flower
Woman
Blood
The sun
War
Exciting
Angry
Happy
Passion
Lucky
Romantic
The sun
The moon
Happy
Color is
associated
with
red
red
red
red
red
red
red
red
red
red
red
yellow
yellow
yellow
Success
Romantic
dessert
Young
Man
The sky
Rainy
War
Evil
Hell
Bankrupt
Politics
yellow
yellow
Yellow
green
blue
blue
blue
black
black
black
black
black
Old
Wedding
black
white
Peace
The moon
Immature
Innocent
Heaven
Sweet
Hospital
Old
white
white
white
white
white
white
white
white
Concrete/
Perceptionbase type
Abstract/Conceptualization-base type
Metaphorical Metonymic
Arbitrary
extension
extension
extension
passionate
rose
passion
blood
sunshine
bloodshed
hot-blooded
blush
ruddy cheek
fire
red envelop
love
sunshine
moonlight
smile face
icon
golden medal
warm
cheese
energy
shirt
steady
sky
depressed
death
horrible
Satan
Satan
dark
black money/
fight
death
wedding
gown
dove
moon light
pure/ children
pure
angel
pure/baby
uniform
white hair
naive
A. Concrete/Perception-based type
They are automatically ascribed to the awareness of concreteness. This type of words
is referred to the objects with its color appearance. The perception-base type of color
words is straightforward, the color of the objects refer to overt visibility as well as
perceptual salience.
1. Blood – red, 2. The sun – red/ yellow,
3. The moon – yellow/ white, 4. The sky – blue
Obviously blood is the awareness of concrete to red. 95% of participants write down
the word of red to the color of blood. Since the light and brightness of the sun and the
moon are mainly connected with red and yellow, they are also referred to yellow and
white. All participants connect blue with the color of sky. It is a typical awareness of
concreteness.
B. Abstract/ Conceptualization-based type
The concrete color can be extended to talk about abstract ideas. The objects will be
analyzed and how the color is extended to designate a variety of concepts will be
discussed. As a metaphor, a color expresses an abstract idea through mappings of
properties across two different conceptual domains. When a color can express an
abstract idea through an associated relation, that is metonymic extension. However,
sometimes there is no reason why a color may indicate a certain abstract idea, which
is known as arbitrary extension.
B-1 Associative Meaning of 紅 HONG ‘red’
Metaphorical Extension
1. Flower – red – passionate, 2. Woman – red – passion, 3. Romantic – red – love
The metaphorical meanings are derived from the property sources of fire and
blood. The color red is associated with lust, passion, love, and beauty as well. The
association with love and beauty is possibly related to the use of red roses as a love
symbol.
Metonymic Extension
1. Flower – red – rose, 2. War – red – bloodshed,
3. Exciting – red – hot-blooded, 4. Angry – red – blush.
5. Happy – red – ruddy cheek, 6. Passion – red – fire,
7. Lucky – red – red envelop
Red color developed by metonymic extension can be related to fire and blood. All the
above words refer to the general physical state or emotional states that are typically
associated with the flowing of blood in one’s face. In Chinese culture, red things are
used as a wish for good fortune in the celebrations. Red envelop for Chinese can be a
metonym for luck because of Chinese tradition.
B-2 Associative Meaning of 黃 HUANG ‘yellow’
Metaphorical Extension
Romantic – yellow – warm
The light of the sun is associated with yellow color, and the energy can make people
feel warm, just as romantic expression.
Metonymic Extension
1. Happy – yellow – smile face, 2. Success – yellow – golden medal,
3. Dessert – yellow – cheese
Happiness is thought of as a smile face, so it naturally connects with a typical yellow
smile face icon. In Chinese culture, yellow is a royal color-the color of the emperorbecause the emperor was believed to stand at the center of the world, just as the sun is
in the center of the universe. Success for Chinese could be the color of yellow, since
there are lots of idiomatic phrases on achieving great success in life. In general, the
color of medals is yellow or a golden yellow color.
B-3 Associative Meaning of 綠 LU ‘green’
Metaphorical Extension
Young – green – energy
Green is associated with youth. Energy, freshness and activity are written down for
the association to green. The property of youth is characterizes persons full of life and
vitality.
B-4 Associative Meaning of 藍 LAN ‘blue’
Metaphorical Extension
Rainy – blue – depressed
Rainy day with cloudy could make people in low spirits and tend to depress. Also blue
is associated with watery. Originally the perception of blue in Chinese didn’t contain
the meaning of sad or gloomy, but does now after the effect from the word of blue in
English. Now it is connected since, it also recognize that the color blue have such an
extended meaning.
Metonymic Extension
Man –blue – shirt
Traditionally the color of blue represents men, and red is for women. Blue shirts
are commonly seen on or sold to men.
Arbitrary Extension
Man – blue – steady
The word feature will be described to a man or required a man to be. Man should act
regularly in behavior or habits to be sensible and dependable.
B-5 Associative Meaning of 黑 HEI ‘black’
Metaphorical Extension
1. War – black – death, 2. Hell – black – horrible,
3. Bankrupt – black – dark, 4. Politics – black – black money/ fight,
5. Old – black – death
The gloomy mood is extended from darkness. In a dark place, one cannot see
anything, so there seems no expectation for the future and there is no hope. Black
money indicates such an illegal property, the derivation of which goes from darkness.
Metonymic Extension
1. Evil – black – Satan, 2. Hell – black – Satan
The word feature of Satan did not exist in Chinese culture before, but came from the
western religious culture. The images of Satan are regarded as a rebellious fallen
angel or demon that tempts humans to sin or commit evil deeds. The appearance of
Satan in books or movies is normally in black.
B-6 Associative Meaning of 白 BAI ‘white’
Metaphorical Extension
1.
Immature – white – pure/ children, 2. Innocent – white – pure,
3. Sweet – white – pure/baby
In contrast with black, the properties of white tend to be positive and can be
characterized as light, clean and pure. The images of babies and children are
associated with white.
Metonymic Extension
1. Wed – white – wedding gown, 2. Peace – white – dove,
3. Heaven – white – angel, 4. Hospital –– white – uniform,
5. Old – white – white hair
Obviously, white dove is an extension for peace. In Chinese tradition the marriage
ceremony is full of red color; however, up to 55% associated white with wedding in
this survey. Clearly the concept of the wedding is changing. Angel is heaven. Angels
are usually shown in pictures dressed in white, with wings and are the messenger or
attendant of god. Hospital and old are associated with white color and indicated to
uniform and white hair.
Arbitrary Extension
Heaven – white – naive
White is the palest color and is unstained. The concepts to heaven are without
argument and peaceful forever. That is the only considered case of arbitrary extension.