Originally created by Ms. Susan M. Pojer Horace Greeley HS
Chappaqua, NY
Geography of the
Romans
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Rome’s central location contributed to its success in
unifying Italy and then all the lands ringing the
Mediterranean Sea which it called the “Middle of the
Earth.”
Italy was a crossroads within the Mediterranean and
Rome was a crossroads within Italy.
The Tiber River on one side and a double ring of seven
hills on the other afforded natural protection to the
site.
The Apennine Range runs along its length like a spine,
separating the eastern and western coastal plains.
The mild Mediterranean climate affords a long
growing season and conditions suitable for a variety
of crops and the conditions for sustaining large
populations.
The mountainous regions were abundant in timber and
iron and other metal were found in the northwest
region of Etruria.
The Geography of Rome
The Mythical Founding of
Rome:
Romulus & Remus
From Kingdom to Republic
 Modern scholars do not support the myths of
Romulus and Remus but it appears bands of IndoEuropean migrants crossed the Alps and settled
throughout the Italian Peninsula.
 Like their distant cousins in India, Greece, and
northern Europe, these migrants blended with the
Neolithic inhabitants of the region, adopted
agriculture, and established tribal federations.
Bronze metallurgy appeared around 1800 B.C.E.
and iron around 900 B.C.E.
 The first major group of Italy were the Etruscans.
Coming from Anatolia, they settled from the Po
River in the north to modern-day Naples in the
south.
 The Etruscans deeply influenced the early
development of Rome. Several of the first Roman
kings were Etruscan and ruled through the seventh
and sixth century B.C.E.
Influence of the Etruscans
 Writing
 Religion
 The Arch
Apennine Peninsula in 753 BCE
Formation of an Empire
 About 509 B.C.E., Romans drove out the
Etruscan kings and declared Rome a republic,
a government in which power resides in a body
of citizens and consists of representatives
elected by them.
 The Roman Republic which lasted from 507 to
31 B.C.E. was not a democracy. Sovereign
power resided in assemblies and while all male
citizens were eligible to attend, the votes of
the wealthy classes counted for more than
the votes of poor citizens.
 In Rome, as in classical China and Greece,
patterns of land distribution caused serious
political and social tensions. Conquered
lands fell into the hands of wealthy elites
who organized large plantations known as
latifundia.
The Roman Republic
• The real center of power was the Roman Senate.
Technically an advisory council, first to kings and
later to Republican officials, the Senate
increasingly made policy and governed. Senators
nominated their sons for public offices and filled
Senate vacancies from the ranks of former
officials.
 The Senate whose members served for life brought
together the state’s wealth, influence, and
political and military experience.
 The inequities in roman society led to periodic
unrest and conflict between the elite (patricians)
and the majority of the population (plebeians).
 It became apparent in time the republic which was
constructed for small city-states was not suitable
for a large and growing republic.
Expansion of the Empire
 As it expanded, Rome often offered its
opponents a choice between alliance and
conquest. If they accepted Roman rule, they
would receive Roman citizenship and protection.
 Rome fought protracted and bloody wars
against the Carthaginians (Hannibal) called the
Punic Wars. The Carthaginians were the heirs
of the Phoenicians which controlled much of
the southern and eastern Mediterranean.
 During the early first century B.C.E., Rome fell
into civil war as individuals fought for land and
power in the new lands of the Romans. While
there were attempts to reform the empire under
Tiberius in 132 B.C.E. and Gaius in 121 B.C.E.,
they were both assassinated and the die had
been caste for a move away from the Republican
ideals and a move toward a centralized imperial
form of government.
Carthaginian Empire
Hannibal’s Route
First Triumvirate
Julius Caesar
Pompey
Crassus (Licinius)
Imperial Rome Emerges
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In addition to the Carthagians, the Romans also fought
with the Gauls (Celts) from Modern-day France.
Under Julius Caesar, Rome expanded its empire across
the Mediterranean and the continent of Europe.
The conquest of Gaul helped to create a political
crisis. As a result of his military victories, Caesar had
become very popular in Rome. As tensions arose in
early 49 B.C.E., Caesar had turned his armies toward
Rome.
By early 46 B.C.E., he had made himself master of the
Roman state and named himself dictator-an office he
claimed for life rather than the usual six-month term.
Caesar’s policies pointed the way toward a
centralized, imperial form of government for Rome
and its possessions but Caesar’s rule had alienated
many members of the Roman elite and he was
assassinated in 44 B.C.E. which led to continued civil
conflict until the acceptance of Octavian, Caesar’s
nephew and adopted son.
Beware the Ides of March!
44 BCE
Octavian Augustus:
Rome’s First Emperor
Pax Romana
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Octavian known now as Augustus, a term with strong
religious connotations suggesting the divine nature of its
holder, would rule virtually unopposed and fashioned an
imperial government that guided Roman affairs for the
next three centuries.
During the two centuries following Augustus’s rule,
Roman armies conquered much of the Mediterranean. The
empire had expanded to include not only the lands of
Italy, Greece, Syria, Gaul, and most of the Iberian
Peninsula, but it would go onto conquer lands as far as
Britain, most of northern Africa, SW Asia, and Anatolia.
Roman Expansion had especially dramatic effects on
European lands embraced by the Empire. Egypt, Syria,
Anatolia, and Mesopotamia had long been sites of complex
city-based societies but Gaul, Germany, Britain, and Spain
were not.
When Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and
merchants arrived, they stimulated the development of
local economies and states.
The Greatest Extent of the
Roman Empire – 14 CE
Pax Romana: 27 BCE – 180 CE
The Roman Forum
Rome’s Early Road System
Roman Roads:
The Appian Way
Imperial Roman Road System
Roman Aqueducts
The Roman Colosseum
The Colosseum Interior
Circus Maximus
The Greatest Extent of the
Roman Empire – 14 CE
The Empire Stops
Expanding
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One noticeable difference
during this time is the building
of walls to keep out the
Barbarians of the Empire.
The most famous was Emperor
Hadrian’s Wall (117 - 138 C.E.)
which defined the most
northern extent of Roman
expansion on Britain.
As military commanders were
more focused on defensive
strategies than on offensive
strategies, these changes
started to sow seeds for
future conflict.
Roman Law
 Under conditions of political stability and the Pax
Romana, jurists constructed an elaborate system
of law.
 Romans began a tradition of written law about 450
B.C.E., when they created the Twelve Tables.
 As armies spread Roman influence, jurists worked
to construct a rational body of law that would
apply to all peoples under Roman rule.
 They established the principle that defendants
were innocent under proven guilty and they also
had the right to challenge their accusers in a court
of law.
 Like transportation and communication networks,
Roman law helped to integrate diverse lands that
made up the empire and the principles of Roman law
continued to shape Mediterranean and European
society long after the empire had disappeared.
Roman Society
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As Rome expands, it did levy tribute, taxes, rents, and
recruited soldiers from the peoples in conquered. They
settled their own soldiers in captured lands, turning
those lands into Roman estates and enslaving millions of
people.
The Supplying of Rome, the construction of cities, and
trade across the Eurasian land mass transformed the
Empire dramatically.
Even though it was law for the peoples of the empire to
worship Roman deities, as conditions worsened and
contact with other areas increased, new religious
thoughts would permeate the empire.
The two groups who were creating the greatest concern
for the Romans were the Jews of Palestine and a Jewish
sect, known as Christians.
The Rise of Christianity
“Third Century
Crisis”
235 to 284 C.E.
The Empire in Crisis: 3c
Empire in Crisis
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From 235 to 284 C.E., Rome was beset and nearly
destroyed when political, military, and economic problems
befell the empire because of a frequent change of rulers.
Twenty or more men claimed the office of emperor during
this period and most only reigned for a period of months
or years.
Diocletian implemented radical reforms that saved the
Roman state by transforming it. One thing he did was to
divide the empire into two: One primarily Latin-speaking
and one primarily Greek-speaking which led to a period of
multiple emperors ruling the West and East Roman
Empires.
In addition, the barbarians were also gathering and
attacking the Empires outer flanks (Celts,Goths, Huns,
Saxons, Vandals, Franks, and others).
Diocletian Splits the
Empire in Two: 294 CE
The New Rome
 When Diocletian resigned in 305 C.E., the old
divisiveness reemerged as various claimants battled
for the throne.
 The eventual winner was Constantine who reunited
the entire empire under his sole rule by 324.
 In 312, Constantine won a key battle near Rome. He
later claimed he had seen a cross superimposed on
the sun before battle. Believing the Christian God
had helped him achieve victory, he would later
legalize Christianity called the Edict of Milan.
 This ended the persecution of Christians in the
empire.
Byzantium:
The Eastern Roman Empire
Constantine: 312 - 337
Constantinople
 In 324, Constantine transferred the imperial city
from Rome to Byzantium, an ancient Greek city on
the Bosporus Strait between the Black and the
Mediterranean Seas.
 This move reflected and accelerated changes in the
empire. Constantine and his mother, Helena,
studded the city and the Empire with churches and
involved himself in doctrinal disputes over which
beliefs constituted heresy. This discussion will
eventually give way to a further break of the
empire and the Christian faith.
 However,the heavy involvement with religion of the
emperors in Constantinople did not prevent them
from playing conqueror and lawmaker.
The Spread of Christianity
The “Barbarians”
 Rome labeled many of its neighbors on its
borders barbarians, including the Celts of
central Europe, the various Germanic groups of
northern and eastern Europe, and the steppe
nomads of central Asia.
 Many of these groups did not have cities, written
languages, formal governments, established
geographical boundaries, nor codified laws.
 The view of the Barbarian peoples as being
beneath the true “Roman” would shape harsh
treatment and sow the seeds of conflict with the
Roman Empires.
Barbarian Invasions: 4c-5c
Rise of the Barbarians
 Continuing imperial vitality in the Eastern
Empire contrasted with deepening decline in
the Western Empire, which became a separate
entity after 395.
 While the Byzantine armies were able to stop
the warring bands north of the Danube River,
many of these groups would move toward the
west and create havoc for the Western empire.
 The primary “Barbarian” groups were the
Huns, Vandals, Goths, Saxons, and Franks.
 The Goths, a Germanic People, would go on to
sack Rome in 410. By 530, with the old Roman
economy and urban centers in shambles, the
Western Roman empire would eventually fall
to numerous tribes from across Europe and
Asia.
The Byzantine Empire
During the Reign of Justinian
Attila the Hun:
“The Scourge of God”
Byzantine Empire
 The Byzantine Empire originated as the eastern half
of the classical Roman empire, which survived the
collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth
century C.E.
 In the early days, the Byzantine Empire embraced
Greece, the Balkan region, Anatolia, Syria,
Palestine, Egypt, and Northern Africa.
 Under Justinian (527-565), armies were sent out to
regain control of lost territories and he would
regain some of the areas and establish a legal code
which will influence most of the modern European
systems.
 One of the reasons why the Byzantine Empire was
able to survive 1000 years after the fall of Rome
may be due to its administrative system. The ruling
classes were never isolated and alienated as they
were in the west.
The Byzantine Emperor
Justinian
Justinian’s Empire
Constantinople:
(Istanbul Today)
Empress Theodora
Church of Hagia Sophia [Holy
Wisdom]
Interior of the Church of Hagia
Sophia
Byzantine & Sassanid Empires,
6c
Rome’s Last Days
 Even though by the end of the 5th century
Rome would cease to be symbol of the capital
of the past, the legacy of Roman rule would
live on in the Byzantine Empire (East Roman)
until Muslim invaders would eventually
control the capital of Constantinople in 1453
and rename it Istanbul.
 The Ottomans and many other Islamic groups
were also influenced by the splendor of
Justinian’s Hagya Sophia…so in many ways
Roman Architecture lives on in the west and
the east.
The Legacy of Rome
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Republic Government
Roman Law
Latin Language
Roman Catholic and Easter Orthodox
Churches
City Planning
Romanesque Architectural Style
Cultural Distinctions (Ethnicity)
Roman Engineering
• Aqueducts
• Sewage systems
• Dams
• Cement
• Arch
Model of Rome
Characteristics
1.During the Republic – Temple
Architecture:
K
blended Etruscan, Greek,
Persian, etc. features.
K
emphasis on the front of the
building.
K
example: Temple of Fortuna
Virilis.
Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”
Characteristics
2.CONCRETE:
K created a revolution in
architectural design.
K create larger, heavier buildings.
* example:
- The Sanctuary of
Fortuna Palestrina.
Sanctuary
of Fortuna Palestrina
Model of Roman Forum
Model
of
Trajan’s
Forum
Characteristics
3.ARCH & VAULT:
K Coliseum
K Race Track – Circus Maximus
K Public Baths
K Amphitheaters
Triumphal
Arch of Titus
Arch of Constantine
Barrel or
“Tunnel” Vault
K Windows can be
placed at any point.
K These vaults require
buttressing to
counter-act the
downward thrust of
weight.
Groin Vault
K Also called a
cross vault.
K Needs less
buttressing.
Multi Groin Vaults
K
K
K
A series of groin vaults
can have open lateral
arches that form
Clerestories.
Windows that allow
light into the interior
of churches.
These concrete windows
are fireproof [an
important consideration
since many early
churches burned!]
Early Roman Amphitheater
 Seats about 20,000
Roman Theater
Theater of Marcellus
Roman Coliseum
Roman Coliseum
Interior of the Coliseum
 Arena is Latin for the sand, coating the floor
that soaks up the blood of the combatants.
Circus Maximus
300,000 seat capacity!
Roman Bath
in England
Characteristics
4.DOME:
K Basilicas
- Large and relatively open
space.
- examples:
► Pantheon
► early Christian churches
Cylindrical Dome
K With the dome, the
Romans could
surpass earlier
cultures by their
ability to span
space.
K Light enters through
the oculus on top.
The Pantheon Plans
The Pantheon
Pantheon’s Dome
The Pantheon Interior
The Pantheon Interior
Painting by
Giovanni
Paolo Pannini
(18c)
Innovative Engineering
Techniques
1. Roads – macadam
2. Aqueducts
3. Arch Bridge
Via Appia
All roads lead to Rome!
Roman Aqueduct
Aqueduct in Segovia
Roman Arch Bridge
in Spain
Hadrian’s Wall in Britain
Characteristics
of Roman Sculpture
1. Collectors and copiers of Greek
works [more idealistic].
2. Categories:
K
Portrait sculpture
K
Statues
K
Paintings & mosaics
K
Relief sculptures
3. More realism [show the wrinkles,
the bulges, and ageing!]
Roman Copy of Greek Art
Original created by the Greek sculptor,
Polyclitus, 5c BCE
Republican Couple
 Realistic portraits – like Hellenistic Greek style.
Portraits of Emperors
Nero
Julius Caesar
Hadrian
Marcus
Aurelius
Mosaics on a
Roman Villa Floor
Roman Citizens
Column
Of
Trajan
Base Relief Legionnaires
on Trajan’s Column
Roman Sarcophagus
 Marble base relief – Etruscan influence?
Roman Villa
House in Herculaneum
Frescoes on aVilla’s
Walls
Roman
Crafts
1c BCE glass bowl
Gold earrings
Ivory Cameo
Jefferson Memorial
Lincoln Memorial
The US Capitol
Building
Statue of Justice
US Supreme Court
Building
Federal Court
Building in NYC
Metropolitan Museum
of Art
Statue of Liberty